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BOOK  II. 

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IN  MEMORIAM 
BERNARD  MOSES 


TARBELL'S 

• 


LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE 


BY 

HORACE  S.  TARBELL,  A.M. 

SUPERINTENDENT  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS,  PROVIDENCE,  R.I. 


SECOND   BOOK 


BOSTON,   U.S.A. 
PUBLISHED   BY   GINN   &   COMPANY 

1892 


COPYRIGHT,  1891, 
BY  H.  8.  TARBELL. 


ALL  RIGHTS  RESERVED. 
BlOSft 


TYPOGRAPHY  BY  J.  S.  GUSHING  &  Co.,  BOSTON,  U.S.A. 
PRESSWORK  BY  G-INN  £  Co.,  BOSTON,  U.S.A. 


PREFACE. 


THIS  book  has  been  prepared  for  the  use  of  pupils  of  the 
higher  grammar  grades. 

It  contains  a  treatment  of  two  main  subjects  :  Grammar,  or 
the  science  of  the  sentence;  and  the  elements  of  Composition, 
or  the  art  of  writing. 

In  the  part  which  treats  of  Grammar  are  included  analysis 
and  punctuation;  in  that  which  treats  of  Composition  are 
included  the  conventional  forms  of  epistolary,  social,  business, 
and  parliamentary  writing ;  and  practice  in  the  art  of  writing, 
for  which  abundant  material  is  supplied  by  exercises  in  the 
selection  and  arrangement  of  words,  in  description,  narration, 
reproduction,  paraphrase,  and  essay-writing. 

These  subjects  are  arranged,  as  in  the  first  book,  in  the 
order  in  which  the  pupil  can  best  study  them,  and  not  in  the 
deductive  order  in  which  an  adult  might  find  most  pleasure. 

To  spend  some  years  upon  composition,  often  called  lan- 
guage study,  and  then  other  years  upon  technical  grammar, 
ignoring  their  connection  and  mutual  helpfulness,  does  not  pro- 
duce the  best  culture  nor  prove  an  economical  use  of  time. 

It  is  only  when  week  by  week  of  his  school  life  the  pupil 
is  learning  and  applying,  having  constantly  in  hand  something 
to  study  and  something  to  write,  that  his  mental  needs  are 
best  met,  and  his  progress  best  secured. 

That  the  pupil  should  pass  from  the  easy  to  the  difficult  has 
been  considered  of  greater  importance  than  that  cognate  sub- 
topics should  be  considered  in  connection. 

iii 

887312 


iv  PREPACK 

The  pupil  has  been  considered  first,  what  he  needs,  what  he 
can  do,  what  he  will  enjoy ;  next  the  teacher,  his  convenience, 
the  lightening  of  his  work,  the  furnishing  of  all  that  he  will 
need  for  the  work  of  his  class ;  and  lastly,  the  subject,  that  it 
be  treated  clearly,  definitely,  and  with  reasonable  fulness. 

The  plan  of  this  book,  the  continuity  and  relation  of  its 
several  parts  may  be  learned  more  fully  by  consulting  the 
Directions  to  Teachers. 

A  "book  which  provides  for  the  synchronous  study  of  several 
subjects  must  be  arranged  with  lessons  in  close  succession 
upon  different  lines  of  work,  or  the  lessons  must  be  selected, 
now  here,  now  there,  throughout  the  book.  This  may  be  done 
in  reviews,  but  is  perplexing  in  advance  work. 

Though  prepared  to  follow  Book  I.,  this  book  is  still  suffi- 
ciently complete  in  itself  to  be  a  one-text-book  course,  covering 
the  pupil's  entire  range  of  language  work  below  the  secondary 
school. 

A  personal  word  here  may  be  pardoned.  Arnid  the  engross- 
ing duties  of  my  position  I  could  not  have  found  time  to 
prepare  this  series  had  I  not  been  constantly  aided  by  my 
daughter,  Martha  Tarbell,  whose  thought  and  labor  appear  on 
every  page. 

To  Joseph  C.  Jones,  Superintendent  of  the  Schools  of 
Newton,  Mass.,  I  make  acknowledgment  of  many  helpful 
suggestions  during  the  preparation  of  the  work. 


NOTES   TO   TEACHERS. 


THE  lessons  of  this  book  should  be  studied  in  the  order 
in  which  they  occur ;  but  reviews  should  be  conducted  by 
subjects,  that  the  logical  relation  of  the  parts  of  each  subject 
may  be  perceived  and  comprehended.  Some  of  these  subjects 
should  be  kept  in  constant  review,  while  others  need  not  be 
reviewed  at  all. 

The  lessons  in  grammar  are  1,  2,  6,  7,  10,  12,  13,  15,  18,  21, 
23,  27,  31,  35,  40,  43,  47,  49,  54,  58,  63,  65,  67,  71,  72,  75,  81, 
85,  89,  94,  98,  101,  105,  108,  112,  118,  121,  125,  129,  131,  135, 
138,  142,  149,  152,  154,  160,  166,  172,  176,  179,  181,  184,  187, 
190,  193,  196,  198,  202,  206,  209,  212,  218,  225,  230,  234,  237, 
240,  245,  248,  253,  259,  262,  267,  276,  288,  294,  297,  300,  304, 
308,  313,  318,  321,  332,  335,  338,  340. 

For  lessons  in  rhetoric,  punctuation,  and  other  subjects,  see 
Index.  These  references  will  be  useful  in  reviews  and  exami- 
nations. 

An  abundance  of  work  in  composition  has  been  provided. 
It  is  expected  that  the  teacher  will  use  this  material  as  the 
needs  of  the  class  require.  Some  of  the  topics  for  composi- 
tions may  be  treated  orally  and  others  in  writing ;  some  may 
be  assigned  to  one  part  of  the  class  and  others  to  another  part ; 
some  may  be  deferred  to  a  review  and  others  may  be  omitted 
altogether. 

The  usual  marks  of  correction  are  given  on  page  29,  and 
pupils  should  be  trained  to  use  them  from  the  first  in  the  cor- 
rection of  papers.  If  it  be  desired  merely  to  indicate  errors 
without  making  corrections,  8  may  be  used  in  the  margin  to 
indicate  an  error  in  spelling,  G  in  grammar,  P  in  punctuation 
or  capitals,  and  R  in  rhetoric  or  style. 

A  teacher  should  not  undertake  to  correct  every  paper  that 
his  pupils  write.  If  he  does,  his  burden  of  work  becomes  too 
heavy  to  be  borne,  or  the  pupils  have  much  less  practice  in 
writing  than  they  need. 


vi  NOTES    TO    TEACHERS. 

The  more  common  faults  should  be  corrected,  one  at  a  time, 
by  having  two  or  three  papers  containing  the  error  in  question, 
and  other  papers  quite  free  from  it,  copied  upon  the  board  and 
criticised  by  the  class.  Pupils  should  then  correct  their  own 
papers  and  afterwards  exchange  them  for  mutual  criticism. 

Show  the  best  work  rather  than  the  poor  work.  When 
work  is  put  upon  the  board  for  correction,  only  so  much  should 
be  written  as  is  necessary  to  exhibit  the  error,  and  it  should  be 
speedily  erased.  When  good  work  is  put  before  the  pupils  for 
commendation,  show  as  much  as  is  convenient,  and  let  it  remain 
as  a  model. 

In  the  beginning  of  the  work  criticisms  should  be  limited 
mainly  to  arrangement,  misspelled  words,  and  violations  of  the 
fundamental  rules  of  punctuation  and  capitalization. 

Do  not  discourage  by  criticism.  The  pupil's  standard  of 
good  work  should  not  be  raised  so  high  as  to  seem  unattain- 
able, but  should  rise  as  he  advances. 

Pupils  should  be  trained  to  write  freely  and  rapidly,  with 
no  undue  anxiety  about  correctness,  and  then  to  revise  with 
thought  and  painstaking.  After  mere  correctness  has  been 
attained,  encourage  pupils  to  aspire  to  something  better  than 
freedom  from  special  faults. 

The  directions  in  the  lessons  entitled  "  Cautions  "  should  be 
carefully  read  and  the  explanations  studied.  Merely  to  recite 
these  lessons  and  then  to  pass  on  to  other  work  will  be  of  little 
value.  They  should  be  referred  to  again  and  again  as  the 
errors  they  warn  against  appear  in  the  pupil's  speech  or  com- 
position. 

The  reading  books,  geographies,  histories,  and  physiologies 
of  the  pupils  afford  many  admirable  themes  for  compositions, 
and  so  does  the  work  of  the  class  on  "  Current  Events." 
Whenever  themes  from  other  studies  or  sources  are  found  to 
be  especially  adapted  to  the  interest  or  the  instruction  of  the 
class,  they  should  be  taken  in  preference  to  those  assigned  in 
this  book. 

If  more  work  is  desired  in  analysis  and  parsing  than  is 
given,  the  exercises  for  rhetorical  practice  can  be  used  for  this 
purpose. 


LESSONS   IN  LANGUAGE. 


Lesson  1. 

THE   SENTENCE. 

School  begins.  Industry  prospers. 

Pupils  study.  Kindness  charms. 

Here  are  four  groups  or  combinations  of  words,  each  of 
which  expresses  a  thought. 

A  combination  of  words  that  expresses  a  thought  is  called  a 
sentence. 

Some  of  the  combinations  of  words  below  express 
thoughts,  and  are  sentences ;  some  do  not  express 
thoughts,  and,  hence,  are  not  sentences.  Select  the 
sentences. 

Birds  fly.  Sugar  is  sweet. 

Water  flows.  The  spring  has  come. 

The  rain  falls.  All  along  the  highway. 

The  fall  rain.  Squirrels  eat  nuts. 

Every  sentence  has  two  parts :  one,  the  word  or  words 
which  tell  what  is  spoken  of;  the  other,  the  word  or 
words  which  tell  something  about  that  which  is  spoken 
of. 

The  part  of  the  sentence  which  tells  what  is  spoken  of,  is  called 
the  subject  of  the  sentence. 

1 


2  LESSORS  '.IN  LANGUAGE. 

The  part  of  the  sentence  which,  tells-  something  #bout  that  which 
is  spoken  of,  is  called  the  predicate  of  the  sentence. 

Select  the  subjects  and  the  predicates  of  the  sentences 
which  you  have  studied  in  this  lesson,  and  also  of  the 
following  sentences :  — 

Leap-year  comes  every  fourth  year. 

The  squirrel  has  his  nest  in  the  hollow  of  a  tree. 
Mary  is  here.  You  can  do  it.  He  thought  so. 

Is  Mary  here  ?  Can  you  do  it  ?  Did  he  think  so  ? 


Lesson  2. 

KINDS   OF   SENTENCES. 

The  earth  is  round.          Virtue  is  its  own  reward. 
The  sky  is  blue.  Columbus  discovered  America  in  1492. 

These  sentences  are  statements. 

Does  it  rain  ?  Will  you  come  to-morrow  ? 

How  far  does  this  lesson  extend  ? 

These  sentences  are  questions. 

Keep  still.  Go  to  the  blackboard. 

Come  to  me.  Study  your  lessons. 

These  sentences  are  commands  or  requests. 

How  it  pours  !  What  a  bright  flash  that  was  ! 

How  dreadful  that  accident  was  ! 

These  sentences  are  exclamations. 

Sentences  may  be  statements,  questions,  commands  or 
requests,  or  exclamations. 


MARGINS.  —  THE  PARAGRAPH.  3 

A  sreiitence  that  is  a  statement  is  called  a  declarative  sentence. 

A  sentence  that  is  a  question  is  called  an  interrogative  sentence. 

A  sentence  that  expresses  a  command,  a  wish,  or  a  request,  is 
called  an  imperative  sentence. 

A  sentence  that  strongly  expresses  surprise,  joy,  grief,  or  other 
feeling,  is  called  an  exclamatory  sentence. 

What  kind  of  sentence  is  each  of  the  following  ? 

Gibraltar  commands  the  entrance  to  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 

Where  is  Yokohama  ? 

Oh,  there  is  sweetness  in  the  morning  air ! 

Interest  is  an  allowance  made  for  the  use  of  money. 

We  take  no  thought  of  time  but  from  its  loss. 

Think  before  you  speak. 

What  do  you  mean  ? 

How  gladly  would  we  buy  time ! 

We  lessen  our  wants  by  lessening  our  desires. 


Lesson  3. 

MARGINS.  — THE   PARAGRAPH. 

The  spaces  011  a  page,  above,  below,  and  on  each  side 
of  the  writing  or  printing  are  called  margins. 

A  paragraph  consists  of  one  or  more  sentences  relating 
to  the  same  thing,  and  forming  a  division  of  a  writing. 

The  beginning  of  a  paragraph  is  usually  indicated  by 
commencing  the  first  sentence  on  a  new  line  and  farther 
to  the  right  than  the  other  lines. 

Turn  to  your  reading  book  and  find  the  first  paragraph 
of  your  reading  lesson,  the  second  paragraph,  other  para- 
graphs. Tell  what  each  paragraph  is  about. 

Look  at  the  first  lesson  in  this  book.     What  is  the  first 


LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 


paragraph  in  that  lesson  ?  What  is  the  paragraph  about  ? 
What  is  the  second  paragraph  ?  How  many  paragraphs 
are  there  in  the  lesson  ? 


Lesson  4. 

PUNCTUATION. 

[In  the  directions  given  in  this  book,  the  correct  use  of  capitals,  as 
well  as  of  marks  of  punctuation,  will  be  included  in  the  terms  punctu- 
ation and  punctuate.'] 

The  four  most  important  rules  of  punctuation  are  :  - 

1.  The  first  word  of  every  sentence  should  begin  with  a  capital 

letter. 

2.  Every  declarative  or  imperative  sentence  should  be  followed  by 

a  period. 

3.  Every  interrogative  sentence  should  be  followed  by  an  interro- 

gation point. 

4.  Every  exclamatory  sentence  should  be  followed  by  an  exclama- 

tion point. 

Every  figure,  letter,  word,  or  group  of  words,  which 
stands  for  an  entire  sentence  should  be  followed  by  the 
mark  of  punctuation  which  would  follow  the  complete 
sentence. 

At  the  head  of  this  lesson  you  see  the  words  "  Lesson 
4,"  "  Punctuation."  "  Lesson  4  "  stands  for  the  sentence, 
"  This  is  lesson  4,"  and  is  therefore  followed  by  a  period. 
"  Punctuation "  stands  for  the  sentence,  "  The  subject  of 
this  lesson  is  punctuation,"  and  is  therefore  followed  by  a 
period. 

The  figures,  1,  2,  3,  and  4,  used  to  number  the  rules  at 
the  beginning  of  this  lesson  stand  for  the  sentences,  "  This 


DEFINITION.  —  DE  SCRIP  TION.  5 

is  rule  1,"  "  This  is  rule  2,"  etc.,  and  are  therefore  followed 
by  periods. 

Hence,  the  figures  that  stand  for  the  number  of  a  line,  an 
example,  or  exercise  should  be  followed  by  periods.  It  is 
not  the  custom,  however,  to  put  the  period  after  the 
number  of  a  page. 

Observe  the  use  of  the  dash  in  the  following  exercise. 

Explain  the  use  of  the  other  marks  of  punctuation. 

THE  Two  FRIENDS. 

1.  —  GEORGE.     Will  you  go  ? 

2.  —  CHARLES.     Yes. 

3.  —  GEORGE.     When  ? 

4.  —  CHARLES.     Now. 

5.  —  GEORGE.     Good ! 

6.  —  CHARLES.     Can  Thomas  go  ? 

7.  —  GEORGE.     No. 

8.  —  CHARLES.     Not  go  ?     That's  too  bad. 

—  ANONYMOUS. 

Lesson  5. 

DEFINITION.—  DESCRIPTION. 

A  definition  is  the  explanation  of  the  meaning  of  a  word 
or  term. 

Here  are  examples  of  definition  from  Webster's  Dictionary. 
A  biped  is  an  animal  having  two  feet. 
A  quadruped  is  an  animal  having  four  feet. 
A  ruminant  is  an  animal  that  chews  the  cud. 
In  these  definitions  it  is  stated  that  bipeds,  quadrupeds, 
and  ruminants  are  all  animals ;  and  in  each  case  is  given 
that  which  distinguishes  this  kind  of  animals  from  other 
kinds. 


6  LESSONS  IN   LANGUAGE. 

Each  definition  is  in  two  parts ;  the  first  part  states  the 
class  of  things  to  which  the  object  belongs,  the  second  part 
states,  the  differences  between  this  object  and  other  objects 
of  the  same  class. 

We 'may  take  this  to  be  the  general  rule  for  making  a 
definition  :  state  first  the  class  to  which  the  object  belongs, 
and  tell  next  what  peculiarities  distinguish  this  object  from 
other  objects  of  the  same  class.  Let  us  apply  this  rule. 

What  is  an  iceberg  ? 

An  iceberg  is  an  immense  mass  of  ice  which  has  broken  from 

the  polar  ice-fields,  and  has   floated  out  into  the  ocean. 

It  is  sometimes  laden  with  rock  and  stones,  taken  from 

the  coast  where  it  was  formed. 

The  first  sentence  of  the  answer  above  is  a  definition. 
The  second  sentence  adds  an  interesting  fact. 

The  two  sentences'  form  a  description  of  an  iceberg. 

A  description  is  something  more  than  a  definition. 

Using  the  description  of  the  iceberg  as  a  model,  answer 
these  questions :  — 

What  is  a  lake  ?  What  is  a  tree  ? 

What  is  a  bay  ?  What  is  iron  ? 

What  is  a  volcano  ?  What  is  coal  ? 


Lesson  6. 

THE   NOUN. 

Everything  about  which  we  can  think  has  a  name.  This 
name  is  the  word  which  we  use  when  we  speak  to  others 
about  it. 


CLASSES  OF  XOUNS. 

Fill  the  blanks  in  these  sentences  with  names :  — 
The  names  of  five  boys  are . 


The  names  of  five  rivers  are . 

The  names  of  five  cities  are . 

The  names  of  five  things  in  this  room  are  - 
-  can  be  seen  in  the  garden. 

—  can  be  heard  on  a  spring  morning. 

—  are  what  we  like  to  see  in  our  friends. 

—  make  us  despise  a  man. 

—  are  used  in  building  a  house. 

—  are  pleasant  things  to  do. 

—  are  the  parts  of  the  head. 


A  word  used  as  a  name  is  called  a  noun. 

Some  of  the  nouns  which  you  have  used  are  names  of 
things.  Which  are  they?  Some  are  names  of  actions. 
Which  are  they?  Some  are  names  of  qualities.  Which 
are  they  ?  Some  are  names  of  materials.  Which  are  they  ? 


Lesson  7. 

CLASSES   OF   NOUNS. 

The  name  man  can  be  applied  to  any  man ;  the  name 
horse  to  any  horse ;  the  name  ocean  to  any  ocean. 

A  name  that  may  be  applied  to  any  one  of  a  class  of  persons  or 
things  is  called  a  common  noun. 

Thursday  is  the  name  of  one  of  the  days  of  the  week, 
by  which  we  distinguish  this  day  from  the  other  days  of 


8  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

the  week.  Greorge  Washington,  Arthur,  Mary,  Mrs.  Brown, 
Peter  the  Great,  are  names  by  which  certain  persons  are 
distinguished  from  other  persons.  Atlantic  is  the  name  of 
an  ocean.  Regulus  is  the  name  of  a  star. 

A  name  by  which  some  particular  one  of  a  class  is  known  from 
others  of  the  same  class  is  called  a  proper  noun. 

A  proper  noun  should  always  begin  with  a  capital  letter. 

\_Maple  is  the  name  of  a  kind  of  trees  and  distinguishes 
this  kind  of  trees  from  other  kinds,  but  it  does  not  name 
any  one  tree  and  distinguish  it  from  every  other  tree  of 
the  same  kind.  It  is,  therefore,  a  common  and  not  a 
proper  noun.] 

Write  ten  common  nouns,  and  after  each  write  two 
proper  nouns  belonging  to  the  class  which  the  common 
noun  denotes  ;  as,  — 

Ocean     -    -     Atlantic,  Pacific. 
City        -         Atlanta,  Camden. 


Lesson  8. 

LETTERS. 

CANTON,  N.  Y., 

May  1,  1891. 
MY  DEAR  OSCAR, 

This  is  May  Day,  and  we  have  had  no  school. 
As  I  do  not  have  my  lessons  to  learn  this  evening,  I  can  write 
and  tell  you  liow  I  have  spent  part  of  my  holiday. 

I  wish  you  had  been  with  me  this  morning,  for  I  had  a  jolly 
time.     I  took  my  dog  Dash  to  Long  Pond  to  give  him  a  swim. 


LETTERS. 

We  went  through  the  woods  first,  and  spent  a  long  time  in 
watching  the  birds  and  squirrels  in  the  trees.  Then  we  crossed 
the  meadow  and  passed  by  that  old  apple-tree  where  you  found 
the  robin's  nest  last  summer. 

When  we  reached  the  pond,  I  threw  a  stick  far  out  and  tried 
to  teach  Dash  to  swim  in  and  bring  it  back  to  me,  but  it  was 
hard  work  to  get  him  to  do  it.  He  would  swim  out  to  the 
stick,  smell  of  it,  and  then  swim  back  without  it.  I  threw 
stones  at  the  stick,  and  finally  put  a  stick  in  his  mouth  before 
throwing  it  out.  At  last  he  seized  the  stick  and  swam  back 
with  it.  He  seemed  quite  j>roud  of  having  learned  his  lesson. 
Every  time  I  threw  a  stick  in  after  that,  he  would  fetch  it  to 
me. 

I  gave  Dash  a  long  race  over  the  fields  to  dry  him,  and  then 
we  came  home  by  the  river-side. 

Now  this  is  a  long  letter,  and  I  shall  look  for  a  long  one 
from  you  soon. 

Your  cousin, 

TOM  HASKELL, 

From  this  letter  you  may  infer  that  every  letter  should 
consist  of  the  following  parts  :  — 

L  Place  where  written' 


I.    The  Heading. 

(  2.  Date  when  written. 

II.    Salutation,  or  words  of  greeting. 

III.  The  Body  of  the  letter. 

IV.  The  Conclusion.     J1'  Complimentary  close. 

(  2.  Signature  of  writer. 

Upon  the  envelope  in  which  the  letter  is  enclosed  should 
be  written  the  superscription,  containing  :  — 

1.  The  name  of  the  person  to  whom  the  letter  is  sent. 

2.  The  name  of  the  place  to  which  it  is  sent. 

No.  2  includes  the  place  of  residence  or  place  of  business, 


10  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

and  the  town  or  city,  and  state.  It  may  include  the  post- 
office  box,  and  should  include  the  county,  if  the  town  is 
not  well  known. 

When  anything  of  importance  has  been  omitted  from  the 
body  of  a  letter,  it  may  be  written  below  the  signature. 
The  letters  P.S.,  standing  for  the  word  Postscript,  should 
precede  what  is  thus  added.  Postscripts  should  be  avoided, 
for  they  indicate  that  the  letter  has  been  hastily  or  care- 
lessly written. 

Every  line  in  the  heading,  salutation,  conclusion,  and 
superscription,  and  the  first  line  of  the  body  of  the  letter, 
should  begin  with  a  capital.  Every  noun  in  the  heading 
and  in  the  salutation  should  begin  with  a  capital. 

The  date,  signature,  and  superscription  should  each  be 
followed  by  a  period. 

The  several  parts  of  the  heading  should  be  separated  by 
commas ;  and  the  salutation  and  every  line,  except  the  last, 
in  the  conclusion  and  in  the  superscription  of  a  letter, 
should  be  followed  by  a  comma. 

Every  word  in  the  salutation  and  the  complimentary 
close  should  be  spelled  in  full. 

The  salutation  may  be  followed  by  a  comma,  a  comma 
and  a  dash,  a  colon,  or  a  colon  and  a  dash.  The  comma  is 
used  in  the  most  familiar  salutations,  and  the  colon  and 
dash  in  the  most  formal. 

Many  writers  prefer  to  omit  all  marks  of  punctuation  in 
the  superscription  except  the  period. 

Observe  carefully  the  position  and  punctuation  of  each 
part  of  the  letter  given  in  this  lesson.  Copy  each  of  the 
principal  parts  by  itself,  and  tell  which  part  of  the  heading 
is  the  name  of  the  place  and  which  part  is  the  date  ;  what 
is  the  salutation,  etc. 


PRONOUNS.  11 

Lesson  9. 

DESCRIPTION. 

Following  the   model   on   page    6   answer   these  ques- 
tions :  — 
What  is  leather  ?  What  is  a  mirror  ?  What  is  hail  ? 

Lesson  1O. 

PRONOUNS. 

When  we  speak  of  ourselves  we  usually  say  I,  my,  mine, 
or  me  for  one  person;  arid  we,  our,  ours,  or  us  for  more 
than  one  person.  Instead  of  the  name  of  the  person  to 
wrhom  we  are  speaking  we  may  use  the  word  you  or  your, 
and  instead  of  the  names  of  other  persons  or  things  we 
may  use  he,  his,  him,  she,  hers,  her,  it,  its,  they,  their,  theirs, 
or  them.  These  words  are  used  in  the  place  of  the  names 
of  the  persons  or  things  which  they  represent.  They  are 
used  in  the  place  of  nouns. 

Words  used  in  the  place  of  nouns  are  called  pronouns. 
The  noun  for  which  the  pronoun  stands  is  called  the  antecedent 
of  the  pronoun. 

In  the  sentence  "  A  brave  man  overcomes  his  fear,"  the 
antecedent  of  his  is  man. 

Select  each  pronoun  below,  and  tell  its  antecedent :  — 

A  swallow,  observing  a  farmer  sowing  his  field  with  flax, 
called  together  all  the  birds  she  could  find,  and  requested  them 
to  assemble  early  in  the  morning  and  aid  her  in  picking  up  the 
seed  and  destroying  it.  She  informed  them  that  nets  are  made 
from  flax,  and  that  if  they  allowed  it  to  spring  up  and  gr<rw, 
many  of  them  would  surely  be  taken  by  its  means. 


12  LESSONS  IN   LANGUAGE. 

Lesson  11. 

DESCRIPTION. 

See  model  on  page  6. 

What  is  a  microscope  ?  What  is  paper  ? 

What  is  silk  ?  What  are  Birds  of  Passage  ? 

Lesson  12. 
VERBS. 

What  does  a  bird  do  ?          What  does  a  child  do  ? 
What  does  a  fire  do  ?  What  does  the  wind  do? 

Words  which  tell  what  anything  does  are  called  verbs. 

What  verbs  did  you  use  in  your  answers  to  the  questions 
at  the  head  of  this  lesson  ? 

The  italicized  words  in  the  following  sentences  are 
verbs :  — 

Wasps  sting.  Squirrels  live  in  trees. 

Clouds  move.  Waste  makes  want. 

Waves  roll.  Diamonds  cut  diamonds. 

The  sailor  rows  the  boat.  Laziness  hinders  progress. 

Verbs  may  also  be  used  to  tell  what  is  done  to  any  per- 
son or  thing,  to  ask  a  question,  or  to  give  a  command ;  as, — 

He  was  stung  by  a  wasp.         Did  he  catch  it  ?          Come  to  me. 

Words  which  assert  something  of  a  person  or  thing  are  called 
verbs.  (The  word  assert  must  be  taken  as  including  in  its  meaning 
tell9  ask,  and  command.) 

A 


SUBJECT,   PREDICATE,   MODIFIERS.  13 

A  verb  often  consists  of  two,  three,  or  four  words,  and 
may  then  be  called  a  verb  phrase ;  as,  — 

School  has  begun.  School  will  have  begun. 

School  will  have  been  begun. 

Find  as  many  verbs  in  Lesson  1  as  you  can. 


Lesson  13. 

SUBJECT,    PREDICATE,    MODIFIERS. 

A  sentence  can  be  made  by  the  union  of  a  noun  and 
*a  verb;  thus,  Grass  grows,  Dew  sparkles,  Carrie  studies. 
In  these  sentences  the  noun  is  the  subject,  and  the  verb 
is  the  predicate. 

The  subject  and  the  predicate  of  a  sentence  may  have 
words  joined  to  them  to  limit,  to  change,  or  to  make  more 
complete  their  meaning. 

Words  joined  to  other  words  to  make  their  meaning  or  use  more 
definite  are  called  modifiers. 

The  sun  shines. 

The  bright  sun  shines  in  the  sky. 

In  the  second  sentence  bright  is  a  modifier  of  sun,  and  in 
the  sky  is  a  modifier  of  shines. 

A  subject  or  a  predicate  without  modifiers  is  called  a  simple  sub- 
ject or  a  simple  predicate. 

A  simple  subject  with  its  modifiers  may  be  called  a  modified 
subject,  and  a  simple  predicate  with  its  modifiers  may  be  called 
a  modified  predicate. 

Hereafter,  when  the  words  subject  and  predicate  are  used 
alone,  the  simple  subject  and  the  simple  predicate  are 
understood. 


14  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

Study  these  sentences,  and  tell  what  is  the  subject,  what 
is  the  predicate,  and  what  are  the  modifiers  of  each. 

Time  flies.  The  cattle  graze  upon  the  hills. 

War-ships  are  huilt  of  iron.      They  go  to  church  on  Sunday. 
So  work  the  honey-bees.     ,       The  Greeks  fled  toward  the  city. 
The  fields  are  covered  with  grain. 


Lesson  14. 

LETTER   FORMS. 

Box  1007,  HELENA,  MONTANA,       « 

May  11,  1895. 

Messrs.  KAND,  DOBSON  &  Co., 
64  Wilmington  Ave., 

Syracuse,  N.Y. 
GENTLEMEN  :  —  Will  you  


Very  respectfully, 

[Mrs.]  J.  M.  SABINE. 

In  business  letters  the  address  is  written  above  the  salu- 
tation, and  the  two  together  form  the  introduction.  In 
social  or  friendly  letters  the  address  may  be  omitted,  as  on 
page  8,  or  written  at  the  left  below  the  signature. 

From  the  following  statements  write  suitable  headings, 
introductions,  and  conclusions  for  letters,  arranging  them 
as  in  the  model  above  :  — 

Be  careful  in  the  use  of  titles.  Do  not  use  both  Mr. 
and  Esq.,  nor  Dr.  and  M.D.  with  the  same  name. 

Arthur  Benedict,  who  resides  in  Colchester,  Connecticut, 
and  whose  post-office  box  is  No.  35,  wrote  a  letter  to  J.  L. 


THE  ADJECTIVE.  15 

Montmorris,  a  doctor  living  at  Los  Angeles,  California,  on 
the  12th  day  of  June,  1865. 

Jan.  9, 1887,  Frank  Wilcox  of  New  York  City,  18  State  St., 
wrote  to  Porter  &  Hoyt,  whose  place  of  business  is  on  Beek- 
man  St.  of  the  same  city. 

A  letter  was  written  on  June  7,  '84,  to  Walter  Torr  of 
Crawfordsville,  Indiana,  by  his  uncle,  Joseph  Powell  of  Cin- 
cinnati, Ohio,  who  wrote  from  100  West  Fourth  St. 

Eleanor  Moore  wrote  to  her  friend,  Lillian  M.  Rose,  on 
Feb.  4  of  the  year  1886.  The  letter  was  sent  to  Dallas, 
Texas,  and  was  written  from  Tokio,  Japan. 

Grace  W.  Emery  received  a  letter  which  was  written  in 
1890,  in  January,  on  the  fifth  day  of  the  month.  Her  address 
was  Seattle,  Washington.  The  letter  was  written  at  the  De 
Pauw  University,  Greencastle,  Indiana,  by  E.  L.  Adams,  her 
former  teacher. 

Kate  E.  Krider  wrote  to  the  firm  of  Shepard,  Sheridan  & 
Co.,  on  the  twenty-first  day  of  July.  The  letter  was  written 
from  Lansing,  Michigan,  and  she  wished  the  reply  to  be  sent 
to  post-office  box  No.  133.  The  address  of  the  firm  was  115 
La  Salle  St.,  Chicago,  111. 


Lesson  15. 

THE   ADJECTIVE. 

Good  men,  five  men,  red  apples,  industrious  boys,  this  lesson. 

With  the  nouns  men,  apples,  boys,  and  lesson  we  have 
joined  other  words  which  modify  them. 

A  word  which  modifies  a  noun  or  pronoun  is  called  an  adjective. 
The  adjectives  good,  red,  and  industrious  describe  the 


16  LESSONS  IN   LANGUAGE. 

objects  which  the  nouns  men,  apples,  and  boys  represent, 
and  hence  are  called  descriptive  adjectives. 

The  adjectivejfee  limits  the  application  of  the  noun  men 
to  a  certain  number;  the  adjective  this  limits  the  noun 
lesson  to  one  particular  lesson ;  and  hence  they  are  called 
limiting  ad j e c ti ves . 

An  adjective  used  to  describe  an  object  is  called  a  descriptive 
adjective. 

An  adjective  used  to  limit  the  use  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  is  called 
a  limiting  adjective. 

In  the  sentence  "  This  old  man  is  lame,"  name  the  ad- 
jectives, and  tell  whether  each  is  limiting  or  descriptive. 

Select  five  limiting  and  five  descriptive  adjectives  from 
your  reading  lesson. 

An  adjective  used  in  the  predicate  to  modify  the  subject 
is  called  a  predicate  adjective  ;  as,  — 

The  stars  are  bright.  The  tide  is  high. 

The  lesson  is  difficult.  He  is  wrong. 

Two  adjectives,  a  or  an,  and  the,  are  called  articles. 
A  or  an  is  called  the  indefinite  article.  The  is  called  the 
definite  article. 

An  is  used  before  words  beginning  with  a  vowel  sound  ; 
and  a,  before  words  beginning  with  a  consonant  sound ; 
as,  an  apple,  a  man. 

Adjectives  denoting  number  are  called  numeral  adjec- 
tives. They  are  of  two  classes :  cardinal,  denoting  how 
many ;  as,  one,  two,  three ;  and  ordinal,  denoting  order ;  as, 
first,  second,  third. 

Write  sentences  containing  the  adjectives   in  the  list 


ABBREVIATIONS.  —  CONTRACTIONS.  17 

which  follows.     Use  each  adjective  as  an  immediate  modi- 
fier of  the  noun,  and  then  as  a  predicate  adjective :  — 

handsome          energetic          bright          first 
three  famous  high  gloomy 


Lesson  16. 

ABBREVIATIONS.  —  CONTRACTIONS. 

Sometimes  we  omit  a  part  of  the  letters  of  a  word  and 
let  the  rest  stand  for  the  word  itself ;  thus,  — 

Wed.  stands  for  Wednesday;  St.  for  street  or  saint;  ans. 
for  answer ;  prod,  for  product ;  A.  Lincoln  for  Abraham  Lin- 
coln ;  Geo.  Washington  for  George  Washington. 

The  forms  Wed.,  St.,  ans.,  prod.,  A.,  and  Geo.,  are  called 
abbreviations. 

An  abbreviation  is  one  or  more  letters  followed  by  a  period  and 
used  to  represent  a  word  or  words. 

The  first  letter  of  a  word  is  the  initial  letter.  When  the 
first  letter  of  a  name  is  followed  by  a  period  and  stands  for 
the  name,  it  is  called  an  initial.  An  initial  is  an  abbrevi- 
ation. 

Write  the  initials  of  your  name. 

Write  the  abbreviations  for  the  names  of  the  days  of  the 
week,  for  the  names  of  the  months,  for  the  names  of  the 
states. 

Write  ten  abbreviations  for  words  used  in  arithmetic. 

Write  the  abbreviations  of  eight  titles  used  before  names, 
and  of  five  used  after  names. 

Write  ten  abbreviations  used  in  denominate  numbers. 


18  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

I'll  come  to  see  you. 

This  sentence  means  I  will  come  to  see  you.  Til  is  a 
shortened,  or  contracted,  form  for  I  will.  The  omission  of 
the  letters  wi  is  indicated  by  the  apostrophe. 

Shortened  forms  in  which  an  apostrophe  is  used  are  called  con- 
tractions. 

What  letters  are  omitted  in  acc't  ?  isn't?  haven't?  don't? 
rec'd  ?  what's  ?  tho'  ?  ev'g  ?  e'en  ?  there's  ? 

How  is  a  contraction  indicated  ?  What  is  the  distinc- 
tion between  a  contraction  and  an  abbreviation? 


Lesson  17. 

BRIEF   BIOGRAPHY. 

Christopher  Columbus  was  a  Genoese  navigator  who,  sailing 
westward,  discovered  the  New  World  in  1492.  He  made  four 
voyages  across  the  Atlantic,  and  died  in  Spain  in  1506. 

Compare  this  with  the  description  of  an  iceberg  given 
on  page  6.  Do  you  see  any  resemblance?  What? 

Write  a  short  paragraph  in  answer  to  these  questions :  — 

Who  was  Abraham  Lincoln  ?        Who  was  Longfellow  ? 
Who  was  Caesar  ? 


Lesson  18. 

COMPARISON. 

John  is  short,  but  he  is  taller  than  his  brother. 

Though  Carl  is  very  young,  he  is  the  oldest  boy  in  this  class. 

In  these  examples,  short  tells  us  about   John  as  he  is 
himself,  and  taller  tells  us  how  he   compares  in  stature 


COMPARISON.  19 

with  his  brother.     Young  tells  us  of  Carl's  age,  and  oldest 
compares  his  age  with  the  ages  of  the  other  boys. 

Boston  is  a  large  city. 

Philadelphia  is  a  larger  city. 

New  York  is  the  largest  city  in  America. 

Here  the  idea  expressed  by  large  belongs  to  each  city ; 
but  it  belongs  to  Philadelphia  in  a  greater  degree  than  to 
Boston,  and  to  New  York  in  a  greater  degree  than  to 
either  of  them,  or  to  any  other  city  in  the  United  States. 

Of  these  forms,  large  is  used  when  the  object  which  it 
describes  is  not  compared  with  any  other ;  larger,  when 
the  object  is  compared  with  another;  and  largest,  when 
the  object  is  compared  with  all  the  others  of  the  kind 
or  group  considered. 

Large  is  said  to  be  in  the  positive  degree ;  larger,  in  the 
comparative  degree  ;  and  largest,  in  the  superlative  degree. 

Comparison  may  be  made  between  classes  or  groups  of 
objects  as  well  as  between  single  objects ;  as,  — 

The  Patagonians  are  the  tallest  of  the  Indian  races. 

The  positive  degree  is  used  to  express  a  quality  which  the  object 
has  in  itself. 

The  comparative  degree  shows  that  an  object  possesses  a  quality 
in  a  higher  or  lower  degree  than  some  other  object  with  which  it  is 
compared. 

The  superlative  degree  shows  that  an  object  possesses  a  quality 
in  a  higher  or  lower  degree  than  any  other  of  the  objects  with  which 
it  is  compared. 

Qualities  like  round  and  perfect,  that  do  not  admit  of 
varying  degrees,  are  expressed  by  adjectives  in  the  posi- 
tive form  only. 


20  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

A  small  degree  of  a  quality  is  sometimes  expressed  by 
joining  to  the  adjective  the  letters  ish,  or  by  placing  before 
it  such  words  as  rather,  somewhat.  What  examples  of  this 
can  you  give  ?  A  high  degree  of  a  quality  is  sometimes 
expressed  by  placing  before  the  adjective  the  word  very, 
exceedingly,  etc.  Give  examples. 

The  comparative  degree  is  regularly  formed  from  the 
positive  by  placing  more  or  less  before  it,  or  by  adding  the 
letters  er. 

The  superlative  degree  is  regularly  formed  from  the 
positive  by  placing  most  or  least  before  it,  or  by  adding 
the  letters  est. 

Adjectives  of  one  syllable  are  compared  by  adding  er  and 
est.  Adjectives  of  three  or  more  syllables  are  compared 
by  the  use  of  more  and  most,  less  and  least.  Adjectives  of 
two  syllables  are  compared  by  the  one  of  these  methods 
which  gives  the  result  most  pleasing  to  the  ear. 

Some  adjectives  are  compared  irregularly ;  as,  — 

POSITIVE.  COMPARATIVE.  SUPERLATIVE. 

good  better  best 

I  worse  worst 

ill    ) 

little  less  least 

n  ( first 

fore  former 

(  foremost 

much  i  more  most 

many  > 

n  ( farther  farthest 

( further  furthest 

( nearest 
near  nearer 

(next 


COMPARATIVE. 

SUPERLATIVE. 

later 

(  latest 

(last 

j"  older 

oldest 

(  elder 

eldest 

ABBREVIATIONS.  21 

POSITIVE. 
late 

old 

Find  in  your  dictionary  the  distinction  between  bad  and 
ill,  much  and  many,  farther  and  further,  nearest  and  next, 
latest  and  last,  older  and  elder,  foremost  and  first. 


Lesson  19. 

ABBREVIATIONS. 

Titles  when  joined  with  proper  names  may  be  abbre- 
viated, but  not  when  standing  alone. 

The  names  of  states  should  be  abbreviated  when  joined 
with  the  name  of  the  town  or  county,  but  not  otherwise. 

Morning,  noon,  and  afternoon  should  be  expressed  by 
A.M.,  M.,  and  P.M.  only  when  the  hour  is  given. 

The  names  of  the  months  may  be  abbreviated  only  when 
used  with  the  day  of  the  month  and  the  year. 

Use  $  only  in  names  of  firms. 

Use  words,  not  figures,  for  small  numbers,  excepting  in* 
tables,  statistics,  numbering  of  lines,  pages,  examples, 
dates,  the  time  of  day,  and  similar  cases.  Do  not  begin 
a  sentence  with  a  figure. 

I  shall  call  this  afternoon  (not  P.M.). 
I  live  in  Massachusetts  (not  Mass.). 

Wheat  is  50  cts.  per  bushel  (not  bu.).  (In  a  bill  or  similar 
paper  you  might  use  the  abbreviation  bu.). 

I  shall  call  to  see  you  the  first  day  of  December  (not  Dec.). 


22  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

Lesson  2O. 

BRIEF   BIOGRAPHY. 

See  page  18. 

Who  was  Henry  Clay  ?          Who  was  Daniel  Webster  ? 
Who  was  Capt.  John  Smith? 


Lesson  21. 

ADVERBS. 
Boys  study. 

In  this  sentence  the  subject  and  the  predicate  are  each 
unmodified. 

Industrious  boys  study  hard. 

Here  the  subject  boys  is  modified  by  industrious,  an  ad- 
jective, and  the  predicate  study  by  hard,  an  adverb. 

Very  industrious  boys  may  study  too  hard. 

Here  the  adjective  and  the  adverb  each  has  a  modifier ; 
industrious  is  modified  by  very,  and  hard  by  too. 

Words  which  modify  verbs,  adjectives,  or  adverbs  are  called 
adverbs. 

Adverbs  are  compared  like  adjectives. 
Select  the  adverbs  in  the  following  sentences,  and ,  tell 
what  each  adverb  modifies  :  — 

You  can  do  this  readily,  if  you  work  skilfully. 
It  is  very  difficult  to  live  idly  and  happily. 


PUNCTUATION.  —  QUOTATIONS.  23 

A  three-fold  cord  is  not  easily  broken. 

The  shortest  and  surest  way  to  prove  a  work  possible  is 
to  set  about  it  earnestly. 

How  strangely  easy  difficult  things  are ! 

Although  genius  always  commands  admiration,  character 
most  secures  respect. 

Never  does  a  man  portray  his  own  character  more  vividly 
than  in  his  manner  of  portraying  another. 

Not  only  is  he  idle  who  does  nothing,  but  he  is  idle  who 
might  be  better  employed. 

"I  find/'  said  Livingston,  "that  all  eminent  men  work 
hard." 


Lesson  22. 

PUNCTUATION.  —  QUOTATIONS. 

A  celebrated  modern  writer  says,  "  Take  care  of  the  minutes, 
and  the  hours  will  take  care  of  themselves." 

"  One  to-day,"  says  Franklin,  "  is  worth  two  to-morrows." 

When  we  use  the  exact  words  of  another,  we  are  said 
to  quote  them ;  and  the  quoted  words  form  a  quotation. 

A  quotation  should  be  enclosed  in  quotation  marks. 

Words  which  introduce  a  short  quotation,  or  which  inter- 
rupt the  quotation,  should  be  followed  or  enclosed  by  commas. 

What  quotations  are  there  in  the  two  sentences  at  the 
head  of  this  lesson  ?  Why  are  the  commas  used  in  these 
sentences  ? 

When  books,  magazines,  and  newspapers  are  mentioned  in 
a  sentence,  it  is  customary  to  enclose  the  titles  of  the  books 
in  quotation  marks,  and  to  print  the  names  of  the  magazines 
and  papers  in  italics. 


24  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

A  quotation  within  a  quotation  is  enclosed  in  single  quota- 
tion marks  ;  as,  — 

The   teacher  replied,   "Franklin's   adage,   'An   empty  bag 
cannot  stand  upright/  suggests  a  very  important  truth." 


Lesson  23. 

THE  CLAUSE.  — THE  PHRASE. 

You  may  go.  I  will  remain  at  home. 

These  sentences  may  be  combined  thus :  You  may  go 
and  I  will  remain  at  home. 

You  may  go.  You  will  return  early. 

These  sentences  may  be  combined  thus :  You  may  go 
if  you  will  return  early. 

We  see  that  sentences  are  sometimes  formed  by  the 
union  of  shorter  sentences.  These  shorter  sentences  are 
subdivisions  of  the  longer  sentence  that  they  form. 

The  subdivisions  of  a  sentence  which  contain  a  subject  and  its 
predicate  are  called  clauses. 

What  are  the  clauses  in  these  sentences :  — 

You  may  go  if  you  will  return  early. 

A  fool  speaks  all  his  mind,  but  a  wise  man  reserves  some- 
thing for  hereafter. 

The  wise  man  will  act  prudently. 
The  man  of  wisdom  will  act  with  prudence. 
Deliberate  cautiously,  but  act  decisively. 
Deliberate  with  caution,  but  act  with  decision. 


CAPITAL   LETTERS.  25 

The  italicized  words  in  the  sentences  above  are  all  modi- 
fiers. Which  are  modifiers  of  a  noun,  and  hence  are  adjec- 
tive modifiers  ?  Which  are  modifiers  of  a  verb,  and  hence 
are  adverbial  modifiers  ?  Which  modifiers  consist  of  a 
single  word  only  ?  Which  of  two  words  ? 

When  two  or  more  words,  not  a  subject  and  predicate,  form  a  group 
having  the  use  of  a  single  word,  they  are  called  a  phrase. 

Mention  the  phrases  in  the  sentences  at  the  head  of  this 
lesson.  Which  is  the  adjective  phrase?  Which  are  the 
adverbial  phrases  ?  What  is  an  adjective  phrase  ?  What 
is  an  adverbial  phrase  ? 

Find  the  phrases  in  these  sentences :  — 

The  cold  of  winter  is  severe. 

The  heat  of  summer  is  sometimes  intense. 

The  lesson  was  prepared  with  care. 

The  bush  is  covered  with  roses. 

He  pays  his  rent  by  the  month. 

He  stood  on  the  seashore. 

Tears  came  into  his  eyes. 

Some  of  these  phrases  can  be  expressed  by  a  single 
word;  others  cannot  be  so  expressed,  but  still  have  the 
use  of  a  single  word,  and  are,  therefore,  phrases. 


Lesson  24. 

CAPITAL,   LETTERS. 
t 

I.   Begin  with  a  capital  letter  the  first  word  of  every 

1.  Sentence. 

2.  Line  of  poetry. 


26  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

3.  Quotation,   example,   precept,   or  question  which  is  a 

sentence  within  a  sentence. 

4.  Word  or  combination  of  words  separately  numbered. 

II.  Begin  with  a  capital  letter 

1.  Proper  nouns. 

2.  Words  derived  from  proper  nouns  and  all  abbreviations 

of  proper  nouns. 

3.  Titles  of  honor  or  office  when  used  in  connection  with 

proper  names  or  when  referring  to  particular  indi- 
viduals. 

4.  Names  of  the  Deity  and  pronouns  referring  to  Him. 

5.  Common    nouns    joined    to    proper    nouns    to    form 

compound  names. 

6.  Names  representing  objects  as  persons. 

7.  The  first  word  and  all  leading  words  in  the  titles  of 

books  and  headings  of  compositions,  etc. 

8.  Names  of  months,  days  of  the  week,  festivals,  political 

parties,  religious  denominations,  important  historical 
events,  etc. 

9.  The  words  north,  south,  east,  and  ivest  when  denoting 

parts  of  the  country,  but  not  when  denoting  directions. 

III.  The  words  /and  0  should  be  capitals,  and  the  let- 
ters I,  V,  X,  L,  C,  D,  and  M  used  as  numerals,  should 
usually  be  capitals. 

Explain  the  use  of  the  capitals  in  the  lesson  above,  and 
in  the  following  sentences :  — 

Have  you  heard  people  say,  "Procrastination  is  the  thief 
of  time "  ?  Since  last  Fourth  of  July  I  have  lived  in  the 
South.  Col.  Hunter  C.  White  has  been  elected  sheriff,  and  is 
now  Sheriff  White. 


CAUTIONS.  27 

Lesson  25. 

CAUTIONS. 
Do  not  use 

most  for  almost,  very  badly  for  very  much, 

bad  for  severe,  bad  for  sick  or  ill, 

every  for  all,  entire,  good  for  well. 

Most  as  an  adverb  means  in  the  highest  degree,  while 
almost  means  nearly.  Very  badly  means  in  an  evil  manner. 
Bad  is  the  opposite  of  good,  and  should  not  be  used  for 
severe  or  sick.  Every  means  each  one  of  several.  Good 
is  not  an  adverb. 

Copy  these  sentences,  selecting  the  right  word  or  phrase 
from  those  inclosed  by  brackets :  — 

The  engine  whistles  opposite  our  house  [almost,  most]  every 
time  it  passes. 

She  was  unable  to  come,  because  of  a  [bad,  severe]  headache. 

I  should  like  to  go  [very  badly,  very  much]. 

You  look  as  though  you  felt  [bad,  ill]. 

Are  you  [most,  almost]  ready  ? 

I  feel  very  [ill,  bad],  for  I  have  a  [bad,  severe]  sore  throat 
and  a  [severe,  bad]  pain  in  my  side. 

He  was  a  boy  in  whom  we  had  [entire,  every]  confidence. 

Did  you  sleep  [good,  well]  ? 

You  have  written  this  exercise  very  [well,  good]. 

[All,  every]  hope  of  retreat  was  cut  off. 

Lesson  26. 

BRIEF   BIOGRAPHY. 

Who  was  Napoleon  ?          Who  was  Peter  the  Great  ? 
Who  was  Alexander  ? 


28  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

Lesson  27. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

The  book  in  my  hand  is  a  grammar. 

The  book  on  the  desk  is  a  dictionary. 

The  book  by  my  side  is  an  arithmetic. 

The  boy  near  the  stove  is  cold. 

The  bird  at  the  window  is  a  robin. 

The  words  over  the  clock  are  the  motto  of  our  school. 

What  phrases  are  there  in  the  sentences  above  ?  What 
word  does  each  phrase  modify  ?  What  shows  the  relation 
of  the  noun  of  each  phrase  to  the  word  which  the  phrase 
modifies  ? 

A  word  which  shows  the  relation  of  the  noun  or  pronoun  in  a 
phrase  to  the  word  which  the  phrase  modifies  is  called  a  preposition. 

Name  the  prepositions  in  the  sentences  at  the  head  of 
this  lesson. 

The  clock  on  the  wall  is  too  fast. 

The  close  of  the  day  will  soon  come. 

You  should  be  polite  to  everybody. 

Labor  with  diligence. 

Life's  greatest  good  is  wrought  on  the  anvil  of  industry. 

Idleness  is  the  key  of  beggary. 

The  secret  of  success  is  constancy  to  purpose. 

It  gives  us  less  trouble  to  learn  in  youth  than  to  be  ignorant 
in  age. 

Select  the  phrases  in  the  preceding  sentences,  and  tell 
what  word  each  phrase  modifies.  Name  the  prepositions 
in  these  sentences.  Between  what  words  does  each  prepo- 
sition show  the  relation  ? 


MARKS   OF  CORRECTION.  29 

Lesson  28. 

MARKS   OF   CORRECTION. 

The  caret  [  A  ]  shows  where  something  is  to  be  inserted. 
Words  to  be  inserted  may  be  written  above  the  caret  or  in 
the  margin. 

If  a  period  is  to  be  inserted,  place  it  in  the  nearer 
margin  and  inclose  it  in  a  circle  [O]  ;  if  quotation  marks 
or  apostrophes  are  to  be  inserted,  place  them  in  the  margin 
within  an  angle  [\/  v^];  if  a  dash  or  hyphen  is  to  be 
inserted,  place  it  in  the  margin  between  two  oblique 
lines  [/ — /,  /-/]  ,  at  the  right  of  a  comma,  semicolon, 
colon,  or  of  one  or  two  letters  that  are  to  be  inserted, 
draw  a  single  oblique  line  [,/  ;/  :/  m/]. 

When  something  is  to  be  omitted,  it  may  be  cancelled 
by  an  oblique  or  a  horizontal  line,  and  a  dels  [8]  placed  in 
the  margin. 

When  something  is  to  be  changed,  it  may  be  cancelled 
as  though  it  were  to  be  omitted,  and  what  is  to  be  inserted 
may  be  written  above  it  or  in  the  nearer  margin. 

If  a  small  letter  should  be  a  capital,  draw  three  lines 
under  it  and  write  cap.  in  the  margin.  If  a  capital  letter 
should  be  a  small  letter,  draw  an  oblique  line  through  it 
and  write  I.e.  in  the  margin. 

If  a  new  paragraph  is  to  be  made,  put  ^[  at  the  place 
where  the  new  paragraph  should  begin,  and  also  in  the 
margin.  If  two  paragraphs  are  to  be  united,  draw  a  line 
from  the  last  word  of  the  first  paragraph  to  the  first 
word  of  the  second,  and  put  "No  ^["  in  the  margin. 

If  words  are  to  be  transposed,  draw  a  curved  line  between 


30  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

them  under  the  first  and  over  the  second,  and  write  tr.  in 
the  margin. 

If  words  are  struck  out  which  should  remain,  place  dots 
under  the  words  that  are  to  remain  and  write  stet.  in  the 
margin. 

You  should  employ  these  marks  of  correction  in  your 
daily  criticism  of  written  work. 

Explain  the  marks  of  correction  in  this  selection  :  - 

@afe.       make  yourselves  nests  of  pleasant  thoughts  L 
^1°-  1 1     vN"one  of  us  yet  know,  for  none  of  us  have  been 
L&.     taught  in  early  /zouth,  what  fairy  palaces  we  w£  8 

«,/     may  build  of  beutiful  thoughts    proof  against  all  ,  / 

A       ,  A 

/ /  'tfoi  adversity  fancies/bright,  satisfied  memories,  noble 
A  fa 

L&.  t^/Mc/stories,   faithful   sayings,  teasure   houses  Jte«r  ^/ 

A  A 

&feC.   precious  and  restful  thoughts  Q 

A 

—  RUSKIN. 


Lesson  29. 

• 

DICTATION.  —  CAPITAL    LETTERS. 

Write  these  sentences  from  dictation :  — 
White  Rose,  talk  to  me. 

I  don't  know  what  to  do. 
Why  do  you  say  no  word  to  me, 

Who  say  so  much  to  you  ? 

Has  your  Uncle  Isaac  recovered  from  his  illness  ?     , 
For  unto  you  is  born  this  day,  in  the  city  of  David,  a 
Saviour  which  is  Christ  the  Lord. 


FORMAL  NOTES.  31 

You  will  find  that  the  state  of  Kansas  occupies  very  nearly 
the  middle  spot  of  North  America,  being  equally  distant  from 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  on  the  east,  and  the  Pacific  Ocean  on  the 
west ;  from  the  frozen  waters  of  Hudson's  Bay  on  the  north, 
and  the  tepid  gulf  stream  on  the  south. 

Michael  Angelo  used  to  say,  "  Trifles  make  perfection,  and 
perfection  is  no  trifle." 

The  Thirteenth  Amendment,  abolishing  slavery,  was  de- 
clared adopted  as  a  part  of  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States  on  December  18,  1865. 

The  surrender  of  Lee  ended  the  war  between  the  North  and 
South,  and  his  soldiers  turned  homeward,  no  longer  Confeder- 
ate soldiers,  but  American  citizens. 


Lesson  3O. 

FORMAL   NOTES. 

In  formal  notes  of  invitation,  acceptance,  regret,  congratu- 
lation, or  condolence,  the  writer  refers  to  himself  by  name 
instead  of  using  a  pronoun.  They  should  be  written 
upon  small  note  paper,  or  upon  cards,  and  equal  margins 
should  be  left  at  top  and  bottom.  Should  the  note  occupy 
more  than  one  page,  it  may  be  continued  upon  the  third. 

In  formal  notes  the  heading,  introduction,  and  conclu- 
sion are  omitted.  The  place  and  date  are  written  below 
the  note,  at  the  left-hand  side.  The  day  of  the  week  is 
usually  written,  while  the  year  is  omitted.  The  letters 
R.S.V.P.  are  often  written  upon  invitations.  They  sig- 
nify that  an  answer  is  requested,  and  are  taken  from  the 
French,  Repondez,  s'il  vous  plait.  [Reply,  if  you  please.] 


32  LESSONS  IN   LANGUAGE. 

\ 
Copy  the  following  formal  notes :  — 

Mr.  and  Mrs.  John  L.  Morrison  request  the  pleasure  of 
Mr.  and  Mrs.  Irving  Hancock's  company  at  dinner,  on  the 
evening  of  Thursday,  May  29,  at  six  o'clock. 

492  LINCOLN  AVE., 

Monday,  May  26. 

Mr.  and  Mrs.  Irving  Hancock  accept  with  pleasure  Mr.  and 
Mrs.  John  L.  Morrison's  kind  invitation  for  Thursday  evening. 
14  EDDY  ST., 

Tuesday,  May  27. 

Mr.  and  Mrs.  Irving  Hancock  regret  that,  owing  to  sickness 
in  the  family,  they  are  unable  to  accept  Mr.  and  Mrs.  John  L. 
Morrison's  kind  invitation  for  Thursday  evening,  May  29. 

14  EDDY  ST.,  May  27. 


Lesson  31. 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

Stephen  and  Earl  will  soon  be  here. 

The  work  was  done  in  good  season  and  to  my  satisfaction. 

You  may  recite,  and  then  you  may  be  dismissed. 

Each  of  these  sentences  contains  the  word  and.  In  the 
first  sentence  and  connects  two  words ;  in  the  second,  two 
phrases  ;  in  the  third,  two  clauses. 

Words  used  to  connect  words,  phrases,  or  clauses  are  called 
conjunctions. 

And,  but,  if,  or,  nor,  and  though  are  the  conjunctions 
most  frequently  used. 

In  the  following  sentences  select  the  conjunctions,  and 
tell  what  they  connect :  — 


PUNCTUATION.  —  THE  SERIES.  33 

Wishes  fail,  but  wills  prevail. 
Knavery  and  flattery  are  blood  relations. 
He  thought  as  a  sage,  though  he  felt  as  a  man. 
Energy  and  persistence  conquer  all  things. 
Money  is  a  good  servant,  but  a  bad  master. 
No  entertainment  is  so  cheap  as  reading,  nor  any  pleasure 
so  lasting. 

Washington  was  a  patriot  and  a  statesman. 
The  sermon  was  long,  though  interesting. 
Will  you  come  to  see  me  now  and  then  ? 

Prepositions  and  conjunctions  are  both  connectives ; 
that  is,  both  are  used  to  join  other  words.  A  conjunction 
connects  words,  phrases,  or  clauses  ;  while  a  preposition 
always  forms  part  of  a  phrase,  and  connects  the  noun 
or  pronoun  of  the  phrase  to  the  word  which  the  phrase 
modifies. 


Lesson  32. 

PUNCTUATION.  — THE   SERIES. 

Mercury,  lead,  and  tin  are  metals. 

From  Alaska  we  obtain  furs,  fish,  and  lumber. 

The  leading  statesmen  of  the  revolutionary  period  were 
Washington,  Franklin,  Hamilton,  and  Adams. 

Neither  envy,  jealousy,  hatred,  nor  revenge  finds  a  resting- 
place  in  a  noble  heart. 

What  three  words  in  the  first  sentence  have  the  same 
use  ?  What  three  words  in  the  second  sentence  ?  What 
four  words  in  the  third  sentence?  What  four  words  in 
the  fourth  sentence  ? 


34  LESSONS  IN   LANGUAGE. 

Three  or  more  words  or  phrases  which  follow  one  another,  and  are 
used  alike  in  a  sentence,  are  called  a  series  of  words  or  series  of 
phrases. 

The  words  or  phrases  of  a  series  should  be  separated  by 
commas. 

If  all  the  terms  of  a  series  are  connected  by  conjunctions, 
the  commas  should  be  omitted. 

Complete  the  punctuation  of  these  sentences :  — 

He  imagined  that  he  saw  the  high  church  towers  rising  up 
into  the  morning  sky  the  town  starting  into  life  once  more  the 
river  glistening  as  it  rolled  and  the  country  bright  with  dew. 

To  gild  refined  gold  to  paint  the  lily 

To  throw  a  perfume  on  the  violet 

To  smooth  the  ice  or  add  another  hue 

Unto  the  rainbow  or  with  taper-light 

To  seek  the  beauteous  eye  of  heaven  to  garnish, 

Is  wasteful  and  ridiculous  excess.  —  SHAKESPEARE. 


Lesson  33. 

SYNONYMS. 
Words  very  nearly  alike  in  meaning  are  called  synonyms. 

Find  several  synonyms  for  each  of  these  words :  — 

i' 

noise  wrath  recreation  care 

behavior          sight  heed  fear 


FORMAL  NOTES.  35 

Lesson  34. 

FORMAL   NOTES. 

Write  these  formal  notes  from  dictation :  — 

Miss  Laura  Metcalf  requests  the  pleasure  of  Miss  Kate 
Merritt's  company  on  Wednesday  evening,  December  15th,  at 
eight  o'clock,  to  meet  Miss  Flora  Wayland  of  Peoria,  111. 

634  SOUTH  DESPLAINES  ST. 

The  honor  of  your  presence  is  requested  at  the  Graduating 
Exercises  of  Smith  St.  Grammar  School,  to  be  held  at  the 
Opera  House  on  Thursday  evening,  June  19th,  1886,  at  eight 
o'clock. 

Mr.  and  Mrs.  Allan  F.  Green 

At  Home 

Wednesdays  in  October, 
From  seven  until  ten  o'clock. 
378  WASHINGTON  ST. 


Lesson  35. 

INTERJECTIONS.  —  REVIEW. 

Words   used   to   express   feeling   merely,  and  not  as  parts  of 
sentences,  are  called  interjections  ;  as,  — 

Oh  !  I  have  lost  you  all.  How  short,  aZas,  is  life  ! 

Pshaw  !    What  a  notion  !  Hurrah !  the  prize  is  ours. 

Poll  I     That  is  of  no  account.  Hip !  Hip  !  Hurrah  I 

Alas !     How  short  is  life  !  Dear  me !  what  shall  I  do  ? 


36  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

Words  used  to  imitate  sounds,  and  not  used  as  parts  of 
sentences,  are  also  interjections ;  as,  — 

"  Chirr !  you  can't  catch  me,"  says  the  squirrel. 

An  interjection  should  be  followed  by  an  exclamation  point. 

This  exclamation  point  may  immediately  follow  the 
interjection,  or  may  be  placed  after  the  phrase,  clause,  or 
sentence  which  completes  the  exclamation. 

0  and  oh  should  be  distinguished.  0  is  use'd  before  a 
noun  or  pronoun  denoting  the  person  spoken  to,  and  is  not 
directly  followed  by  any  mark  of  punctuation ;  oh  is  an 
interjection  denoting  pleasure,  pain,  surprise,  or  fear;  as,— 

When,  0  my  countrymen,  will  you  resent  this  treachery  ? 
Oh,  what  a  fearful  plunge  ! 

Write  five  sentences,  and  use  an  interjection  with  each. 

The  several  classes  into  which  words  are  divided  according  to 
their  use  are  called  Parts  of  Speech. 

There  are  eight  parts  of  speech :  noun,  pronoun,  adjec- 
tive, verb,  adverb,  preposition,  conjunction,  and  interjection. 
Give  several  examples  of  each  part  of  speech. 


Lesson  36. 

HYPHEN.— COMPOUND   WORDS. 

It  will  often  happen  that  there  is  room  at  the  end  of  a 
line  to  write  part  of  a  word,  but  not  the  whole  of  <it.  In 
this  case  the  word  is  divided,  one  or  more  of  its  syllables 
being  written  at  the  end  of  the  line,  and  the  remainder 


HYPHENS.  —  COMPOUND    WORDS.  37 

carried  to  the  beginning  of  the  next  line.  To  show  that 
the  remainder  of  the  word  is  to  be  found  on  the  next  line, 
a  hyphen  [-]  is  placed  at  the  end  of  the  first  line. 

A  syllable  or  a  short  word  should  not  be  divided  at  the 
end  of  a  line  of  writing. 

Some  words  are  made  up  of  two  or  more  words ;  as,  — 

brother-in-law,  sail-boat,  saw-mill,  ice-house,  carving-knife, 
four-sided,  old-fashioned,  time-keeper. 

These  are  called  compound  words. 

The  hyphen  should  be  placed  between  the  parts  of  a 
compound  word  unless  the  parts  have  become  so  united 
by  custom  as  to  be  pronounced  as  one  word ;  as,  — 

workman,  upon,  withstand,  whitewash,  bookseller,  noble- 
man. 

When  several  words  are  used  as  a  single  adjective  they 
should  be  united  by  hyphens ;  as,  — 

a  never-to-be-forgotten  day,  a  well-known  proverb. 

"The  Providence  Journal"  gives  its  compositors  the 
following  list  of  compound  words  which  should  be  written 
with  a  hyphen :  — 

after-life,  anti-slavery,  ante-room,  above-board,  by-and-by, 
brownstone-front,  co-worker,  co-education,  coat-of-arms,  com- 
mander-in-chief  [and  all  words  of  that  class],  easy-chair, 
east-bound,  fac-simile,  four-in-hand,  golden-rod,  half-dozen, 
half-century  [but  half  a  dozen,  half  a  century],  horse-power, 
man-of-war,  one-half  [and  all  fractions],  sergeant-at-arms, 
self-control,  trans-continental,  to-day,  to-morrow,  to-night, 
3-year-old  colt,  twenty-odd  years,  ex-President,  up-stairs,  down- 
stairs, C-sharp,  E-flat.  [And  similar  words.] 


38  LESSONS  IN   LANGUAGE. 

Lesson  37. 

CAUTIONS. 

Do  not  use  — 

how  for  that,  and  for  or  or  but, 

without  for  unless,  had  ought  for  ought, 

but  what  for  that,  previous  for  previously. 

How  and  without  are  not  conjunctions,  and  hence  should 
not  be  used  instead  of  the  conjunctions  that  and  unless. 
But  that,  not  but  what,  is  often  used  as  a  compound  con- 
junction. And  expresses  the  relation  of  addition,  while 
or  expresses  an  alternative,  and  but  an  opposition.  Never 
put  had  or  hadn't  before  ought.  The  adjective  previous 
should  not  be  used  instead  of  the  adverb  previously. 

Select  the  right  words  or  phrases  from  those  in  brackets, 
and  explain  why  the  other  words  or  phrases  in  the  brack- 
ets should  not  be  used  in  these  sentences :  — 

There  is  no  doubt  [but  what,  that]  you  will  succeed. 

The  canal  cannot  be  finished  [without,  unless]  more  funds 
are  furnished. 

You  cannot  learn  your  lesson  [unless,  without]  you  study. 

He  told  me  [how,  that]  he  would  go  if  he  could. 

[Previous,  previously]  to  our  coming  nothing  had  been  done. 

You  said  [that,  how]  the  Mayflowers  were  in  bloom. 

William  Paxton  said  [that,  how]  thoughts  are  mightier 
than  armies. 

I'll  not  deny  [but  what,  but]  you  are  right. 

He  [hadn't  ought,  ought  not]  to  have  failed. 

Report  is  a  quick  traveller  [and,  but]  an  unsafe  guide. 

They  enjoy  a  study  like  history  [and,  or]  literature. 


RAMBLING   SENTENCES.  39 

Do  you  think  you  [had  ought,  ought]  to  go  ? 
Truth  hits  the  mark   [but,   and]    falsehood  rebounds  and 
strikes  him  who  utters  it. 


Lesson  38. 

RAMBLING   SENTENCES. 

In  telling  a  story  or  in  writing  about  something,  do  not 
join  sentence  after  sentence  by  using  and  or  some  other 
connective.  See  that  each  sentence  is  complete  in  itself, 
and  not  a  union  of  several  complete  sentences. 

Improve  the  following  sentences  :  — 

The  tiger  is  not  a  bold  hunter  and  he  does  not  chase  his 
prey,  and  he  hides  in  the  grass  by  the  roadside  and  in  ditches 
near  drinking  places,  and,  like  the  cat,  he  waits  until  his 
victim  is  near  enough  and  then  pounces  suddenly  upon  it,  and 
cattle  soon  learn  when  a  tiger  is  about,  and  they  stay  in  the 
open  meadows  for  they  can  scent  him  a  long  way  off,  and  they 
keep  well  away  from  the  tall  reeds  and  thickets. 

There  is  a  kind  of  spider  that  is  called  the  mason  spider, 
and  it  builds  a  house  and  fixes  to  it  a  door,  and  the  door  opens 
and  shuts  on  a.  hinge  like  the  lid  of  a  box,  and  this  spider  digs 
a  hole  in  the  ground  about  the  size  of  a  man's  finger,  and  lines 
it  with  silk  of  its  own  weaving  and  keeps  it  warm  and  dry, 
and  it  makes  a  trap-door  of  wet  earth  mixed  with  a  little  silk, 
and  the  hinges  on  which  this  door  opens  and  shuts  are  made 
of  fine  silk;  and  then  there  is  another  kind  of  spider  called  the 
geometrical  spider,  and  it  weaves  its  web  with  lines  running 
out  like  the  spokes  of  a  wheel  from  a  center,  and  it  crosses 
these  spokes  with  regular  lines. 


40  LESSONS  IN   LANGUAGE. 

Lesson  39. 

DESCRIPTION. 

If  you  were  to  describe  the  horse,  what  would  you  tell 
first?  What  next?  What  then?  Write  your  answers 
like  this :  — 

OUTLINE  FOR  DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  HORSE. 

1.  What  the  horse  is.    . 

2.  What  he  is  good  for. 

3.  How  he  is  trained. 

4.  How  he  is  kept ;  what  he  eats. 

5.  What  the  parts  of  the  horse  are,  and  something  about  each 

part. 

6.  Where  the  horse  was  first  found. 

7.  How  he  looks. 

8.  A  story  about  a  horse,  showing  his  intelligence. 

You  can  think  of  many  other  things  to  say  about  the 
horse.  Put  them  all  down  just  as  they  come  into  your 
mind,  and  then  arrange  them  in  the  order  you  think  best. 

Think  what  you  will  say  about  each  item.  Say  it ;  then 
rewrite  the  whole  in  good  sentences. 

Perhaps  as  you  think  about  it  you  will  decide  to  leave 
out  some  points,  or  add  others. 

Here  is  an  improvement  in  the  order  of  your  topics :  — 

1.  What  the  horse  is.     [Class.] 

2.  Description  of  the  parts  of  a  horse. 

3.  What  he  eats. 

4.  Where  the  horse  is  now  found,  and  where  first  found. 

5.  Comparison  of  the  horse  and  the  ox. 


COMPLEMENTS.  41 

6.  For  what  he  is  used. 

7.  Story,  etc. 

The  partial  description  below  will  help  you.  Read  it 
over,  and  use  it  in  your  own  language  in  the  description 
you  are  to  write,  adding  to  it,  and  filling  out  the  other 
points. 

PARTIAL  DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  HORSE. 

The  horse  belongs  to  the  class  of  animals  having  a  solid 
hoof.  His  head  is  long,  with  short  ears.  The  neck  is 
adorned  with  a  mane.  The  body  is  oval.  The  fore-legs  are 
nearly  straight;  the  hind-legs  have  a  backward  bend.  The 
horny  covering  of  the  foot  is  called  the  hoof. 

The  color  of  the  horse  varies,  and  there  are  white,  brown, 
sorrel,  black,  and  spotted  horses. 

The  horse  is  found  in  almost  all  parts  of  the  earth,  but  he 
originally  came  from  Asia.  He  is  a  spirited  and  docile  animal. 
He  is  used  for  riding,  driving,  carrying  burdens,  and  working 
machinery.  His  skin  makes  a  good  leather,  and  his  hair  is 
used  for  stuffing  furniture. 


Lesson  4O. 

COMPLEMENTS. 
Birds  fly.  Fishes  swim. 

In  each  of  these  sentences  a  full  thought  is  expressed. 
We  can  add  to  each  a  modifier,  and  say,  — 

Birds  fly  swiftly,  Fishes  swim  in  water ; 

but  each  of  the  original  sentences  expresses  a  full  thought 
without  the  added  words. 


42  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

Does  "  Mary  is  "  express  a  complete  thought  ?  Is  what  ? 
"  Mary  is  "  needs  some  word  or  words  added  to  it  to  com- 
plete its  meaning ;  as,  Mary  is  tall,  Mary  is  a  girl.  Here  tall 
and  girl  are  joined  to  the  verb  is  to  make  the  meaning  of 
the  sentence  complete.  They  are  called  complements  of 
the  verb  is  because  they  complete  its  meaning. 

A  word  used  to  complete  the  meaning  of  a  verb  is  called  its  com- 
plement. 

Is  "  The  boy  took  "  a  complete  statement  ?  What  com- 
plement does  it  require  ?  "  The  boy  took  his  slate."  What 
complement  to  the  verb  is  used  in  this  sentence  ? 

The  complement  of  a  verb  may  either  describe  its  sub- 
ject, as  tall  or  girl  in  the  sentences  "  Mary  is  tall,"  "  Mary  is 
a  girl" ;  or  it  may  name  that  upon  which  the  subject  acts, 
as  slate  in  the  sentence  "  The  boy  took  his  slate." 

A  noun  or  an  adjective  used  as  a  complement  which  describes  the 
subject  is  called  a  predicate  noun  or  a  predicate  adjective. 

A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  a  complement  which  tells  upon  what 
the  subject  acts  is  called  an  objective  complement,  or  simply  an 
object,  of  the  verb. 

A  predicate  noun  denotes  the  same  person  or  thing  as 
the  subject.  A  predicate  adjective  modifies  the  subject. 

The  horse  eats  the  grass.  The  horse  is  swift. 

The  horse  is  a  quadruped. 

What  is  the  complement  in  the  first  sentence  ?  In  the 
second?  In  the  third?  Which  is  the  objective  comple- 
ment ?  Which  verb  has  an  object  ?  Which  complement 
is  a  predicate  noun  ?  Which  is  a  predicate  adjectivp  ? 

An  incomplete  verb  is  one  which  requires  a  complement. 

A  complete  verb  is  one  which  does  not  require  a  complement. 


ANALYSIS.  43 

Be  careful  to  distinguish  between  a  complement  and  a 
modifier  of  a  verb.  A  modifier  of  a  verb  makes  some 
change  in  the  thought  expressed  by  the  verb,  or  adds 
something  to  it.  A  complement  of  an  incomplete  verb  is 
essential  to  the  expression  of  any  thought  at  all. 

He  heard  a  noise  there. 

The  word  noise  is  a  complement,  and  there  is  a  modifier. 
He  heard  expresses  only  part  of  a  thought,  he  heard  a 
noise  expresses  a  complete  thought,  he  heard  a  noise  there 
expresses  the  complete  thought  more  definitely. 


Lesson  41. 

ANALYSIS. 

The  elements  of  a  sentence  are  the  parts  that  have  a  separate 
use  in  the  sentence. 

An  element  may  be  any  part  of  speech,  a  phrase,  or  a 
clause. 

Analysis  is  the  separation  of  a  sentence  into  its  elements,  with 
a  statement  of  the  relation  of  those  elements  to  each  other. 

Parsing  is  naming  the  parts  of  speech  in  a  sentence  and  stating 
their  modifications,  or  grammatical  properties,  and  constructions. 

We  have  already  learned  what  the  subject  and  the 
predicate  of  a  sentence  are. 

The  simple  subject  of  a  sentence  is  the  subject  of  the 
verb.  The  simple  predicate  is  the  verb,  if  the  verb  is  a 
complete  verb ;  or  the  verb  and  its  complement,  if  the  verb 
is  an  incomplete  verb. 

In  analyzing  a  sentence  find  first  the  verb,  and  second 
the  subject  of  the  verb. 


44  LESSONS   IN  LANGUAGE. 

NOTE.  —  The  subject  of  a  sentence  is  the  answer  to  the 
question  made  by  putting  who  or  what  before  the  predicate. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences  by  naming  the  subject 
and  the  predicate  :  — 

1.  School  begins.  9.  Stars  were  twinkling. 

2.  Dogs  barked.  10.  Who  had  been  sleeping  ? 

3.  Snow  has  fallen.  11.  Promises  must  be  kept. 

4.  John  will  forget.  12.  March. 

5.  -He  will  have  gone.  13.  Halt. 

6.  They  are  forsaken.  14.  Will  he  come  ? 

7.  Iron  has  been  melted.  15.  We  could  have  staid. 

8.  Did  you  understand  ?  16.  You  did  understand. 

The  sentences  for  analysis  should  be  analyzed  both  orally 
and  in  writing. 

In  the  written  analysis  of  a  sentence  we  may  draw  two 
straight  lines  under  the  subject  and  two  waving  lines 
under  the  verb ;  thus,  —  School  begins. 

When  the  verb  is  in  two  or  more  parts  it  may  be 
marked  thus,  —  Did  you  understand  ? 

A  word  understood  may  be  indicated  by  the  letter  X; 
thus,  — X  Halt. 


Lesson  42. 

FORMAL   NOTES. 

Write  a  formal  note,  declining  to  attend  a  concert. 
Write  a  formal  acceptance  of  an  invitation  to  a  lecture, 
sent  by  Mr.  Arthur  Gamble  to  Miss  Ella  Conine. 
Write  a  formal  invitation  to  a  class  reunion. 


COM  PL  EM  EN  TS.  45 

Lesson  43. 

COMPLEMENTS. 

The  sky  is  cloudy. 
The  wind  blows. 
Soon  the  rain  will  fall. 
The  wasps  were  the  first  paper-makers. 
Worry,  not  work,  kills  men. 

Butterflies  fly  about  in  the  daytime,  but  moths  fly  mostly 
at  night  and  at  twilight. 

In  these  sentences  which  are  the  complete  verbs? 
Which  are  the  incomplete?  Which  complements  are 
nouns?  Which  complement  is  an  adjective?  Which 
complement  is  a  predicate  noun  ?  Which  complement  is 
an  objective  complement? 

Write  five  sentences  containing  complete  verbs.  Five 
containing  incomplete  verbs  with  adjective  complements. 
Five  containing  predicate  noun  complements.  Five  con- 
taining objective  complements. 


Lesson  44. 

PUNCTUATION.  — "WORDS   OF  ADDRESS. 

John,  you  may  recite. 

You,  John,  may  recite. 

You  may  recite,  John. 

Where  are  you  going,  my  pretty  maid  ? 

Boast  not,  my  dear  friends,  of  to-morrow. 

I  am,  dear  madam,  your  obedient  servant. 

Can  you  tell,  Mary,  who  discovered  America  ? 


46  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

What  word  or  words,  denoting  the  person  or  persons 
addressed,  do  you  find  in  each  of  these  sentences  ? 

A  word  or  an  expression  representing  a  person  or  thing 
addressed  should  be  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence 
by  a  comma  or  commas. 

Find  illustrations  of  this  rule  in  your  Reader. 


Lesson  45. 

SYNONYMS. 

Find    several  synonyms  for   each  of    the    following 
words :  — 

ask  give  erase  increase 

join  reduce  tell  plague 


Lesson  46. 

FORMAL   NOTES. 

Write  a  formal  invitation  to  a  birthday  party. 

Write  a  formal  note  of  acceptance. 

Write  a  formal  note,  declining  the  invitation. 


Lesson  47. 

ANALYSIS.— SIMPLE   ADJECTIVE   ELEMENT. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences  by  naming  the  subject, 
the  predicate,  and  the  adjective  element  modifying  the 
subject. 


TRANSITIVE  AND  INTRANSITIVE   VERBS.  47 

1.  Cold  winds  may  chill.  2.  Soft  music  will  please.  3.  The 
old  house  remains.  4.  A  boy  is  running.  5.  An  apple  might 
have  fallen.  6.  Mild  weather  will  come.  7.  Wealthy  men 
should  give.  8.  The  large  house  might  have  been  painted. 
9.  Should  gray  hairs  be  respected  ?  10.  Will  you  all  come  ? 

An  adjective  element  may  be  indicated  in  written  analy- 
sis by  a  line  drawn  over  it ;  as,  — 


Cold  winds  may  chill. 


Lesson  48. 

DESCRIPTION. 
Describe :  — 

The  camel.  The  bear. 

[See  page  40.] 

Lesson  49. 

TRANSITIVE   AND  INTRANSITIVE  VERBS. 

Most  verbs  express  action.  This  action  may,  or  may 
not,  be  of  such  a  kind  as  to  pass  over  from  the  subject 
to  some  person  or  thing.  In  the  sentence  "  The  workmen 
felled  the  tree,"  the  action  expressed  by  the  verb  felled 
passes  on  to  the  object  tree. 

Verbs  asserting  an  action  that  passes  over  from  the  subject  to 
some  object  are  called  transitive  verbs.  [Felled  is  a  transitive  verb.] 


48  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

Verbs  which  do  not  assert  an  action  passing  over  from  the  sub- 
ject to  some  object  are  called  intransitive  verbs. 

The  bird  flies.     [Flies  is  an  intransitive  verb.] 

Some  intransitive  verbs  assert  action  and  some  do  not ; 
as, — 

The  fish  swims.  The  child  sleeps. 

James  is  captain  of  the  company. 

He  seems  a  good  boy. 

He  looks  very  tall. 

He  appears  quite  young. 

He  learns  his  lessons  every  day. 

He  writes  very  well  and  makes  pretty  drawings  on  his  slate. 

He  will  become  a  fine  man. 

In  the  sentences  above,  which  verbs  are  transitive? 
Which  are  intransitive?  Which  is  complete?  Which 
are  incomplete  ?  Which  complements"  are  nouns  ?  Which 
are  adjectives  ?  Which  noun  complements  mean  the  same 
person  as  the  subject  ?  Which  do  not  mean  the  same  per- 
son as  the  subject  ? 


Lesson  5O. 

PUNCTUATION. 

Complete  the  punctuation  of  these  sentences :  — 

And  wherefore  do  the  poor  complain 

The  rich  man  asked  of  me 
Come,  walk  abroad  with  me  I  said 

And  I  will  answer  thee. 
James  your  friend  Carl  called  while  you  were  away.     Did 


ANALYSIS.  49 

he  leave  any  word  mother  he  said  tell  James  to  come  to  see 
my  rabbits. 

Who  said  experience  is  a  dear  school ;  but  fools  will  learn  in 
no  other  ? 

Shakespeare  says  he  jests  at  scars  that  never  felt  a  wound. 

Longfellow  says  life  is  real,  life  is  earnest. 

Captain  asked  a  sailor  is  anything  lost  if  you  know  where 
it  is  no  replied  the  captain  well,  then  said  the  sailor  your  silver 
teapot  which  just  fell  out  of  my  hand  is  not  lost  for  I  know 
that  it  is  in  the  bottom  of  the  ocean. 

When  my  dog  has  been  whipped  he  will  come  to  me  pen- 
itently and  lick  my  hand  as  if  to  say  I  am  sorry  and  wont 
do  it  again. 

A  friend  said  to  me  Sir  Isaac  Newton  near  the  close  of  his 
life  said  Jf  I  have  accomplished  anything  above  the  average 
of  men,  it  has  been  by  the  power  of  patient  work. 

What  is  the  difference  in  meaning  between  the  two 
sentences  below? 

Roger  says  he  can  punctuate  the  sentence. 

"  Roger,"  says  he,  "  can  punctuate  the  sentence." 


Lesson  51. 

ANALYSIS. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences  by  naming  - 

1.  The  subject. 

2.  The  predicate. 

3.  The  modifiers  of  the  subject. 

4.  The  complements  of  the  verb. 


50  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

5.  The  modifiers  of  the  verb. 

6.  The  modifiers  of  the  complement  of  the  verb. 

1.  Henry  is  the  boy.  2.  He  was  a  painter.  3.  He  may  be 
a  merchant.  4.  He  might  have  been  a  smart  lawyer.  5.  The 
way  was  long.  6.  Foxes  are  cunning.  7.  George  Washington 
was  elected  president.  8.  The  old  man  has  become  a  con- 
firmed invalid.  9.  Little  Mary  was  usually  considered  a 
smart  girl.  10.  The  wise  are  the  good.  11.  Are  they  wise  ? 
12.  Was  he  well?  13.  It  is  I.  14.  Thou  fallest  a  blessed 
martyr.  15.  The  milk  is  turning  sour.  16.  He  has  been 
growing  fleshy.  17.  She  looked  pale.  18.  The  air  felt  cold. 
19.  I  have  driven  that  horse. 

A  complement  is  indicated  by  drawing  beneath  it  a 
dotted  line.  A  predicate  noun  may  have  the  letter  n 
written  beneath  the  line ;  a  predicate  adjective  the  let- 
ter a ;  and  an  object  the  letter  o. 

He  was  a  painter.  Foxes  are  cunning. 

~~~n~  ~~~a" 

I  have  driven  that  horse. 


Lesson  52.        I/ 

BUSINESS   LETTERS. 

A  business  letter  should  be  clear  and  brief.  It  should 
also  be  so  complete  in  itself  that  the  receiver  will  not  need 
to  refer  to  former  letters  in  order  to  understand  it. 

An  answer  to  a  business  letter  should  begin  by  acknowl- 
edging the  receipt  of  that  letter  and  speaking  of  its  con- 
tents. When  you  write  for  information,  inclose  a  stamp 
for  reply. 


DESCRIPTION.  51 

Be  sure  that  your  full  address  is  given  in  every  letter. 
Write  the  street  and  number  as  well  as  the  city  and  state. 
When  writing  from  a  village,  name  the  county.  In  sign- 
ing a  business  letter  write  your  given  name  in  full,  not 
merely  the  initials,  that  the  receiver  may  know  whether  to 
address  his  answer  to  a  gentleman  or  a  lady.  (If  unmar- 
ried, a  lady  may  place  Miss  in  brackets  before  her  name ; 
and  if  married,  Mrs.) 

Copy  the  following  letter :  — 

16  STATE  ST.,  CINCINNATI,  OHIO, 

Jan.  29,  1891. 
K.  W.  CLARK,  Esq., 

Milwaukee,  Wis. 
DEAR  SIR,  — 

Your  note  of  the  5th  inst.,  inclosing  order  and  check 
for  $55.60,  was  duly  received.  The  goods  were  shipped  this 
morning  by  express  to  your  address.  Herewith  please  find 
receipt  for  check. 

Hoping  that  we  may  continue  to  be  honored  by  your  orders, 
We  remain, 

Yours  respectfully, 

BOYD,  SMITH  &  Co. 
per  M. 


Lesson  53. 

DESCRIPTION. 
Describe :  — 

The  lion.  The  tiger.  The  elephant. 

[See  page  40.] 


52  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

Lesson  54. 

CLASSES   OF   NOUNS. 

You  have  learned  that  there  are  two  kinds  of  nouns, 
common  and  proper. 

Under  common  nouns  are  included  abstract  nouns,  ver- 
bal nouns,  and  collective  nouns. 

Abstract  nouns  are  the  names  of  qualities ;  as,  — 

strength,  beauty,  virtue,  warmth,  hope. 

Verbal  nouns  are  derived  from  verbs,  and  are  usually  names  of 
actions ;  as,  — 

running,  boxing,  dancing,  reading. 

Collective  nouns  are  names  of  collections  of  objects;  e.g., — 

army  is  the  name  of  a  collection  of  soldiers. 

Tell  to  what  each  collective  noun  in  the  list  which  fol- 
lows may  be  applied ;  as,  — 

A  regiment  of  soldiers.  A  swarm  of  bees, 

row  bunch         cluster  team          herd 

drove          fleet  company  cloud          squadron 

school         class  family  crowd        crew 

Copy  all  the  nouns  in  the  sentences  which  follow,  and 
tell  the  class  of  each :  — 

He  was  a  good  fellow,  with  boldness  and  diffidence  curiously 
mingled  in  him. 

In  the  woods  we  can  hear  the  murmur  of  insects,  the  twitter 
of  birds,  the  scrambling  of  squirrels,  and  sometimes  the  rush 
of  unseen  animals. 

The  spar  that  projects  from  the  bow  of  the  vessel  is  the 
bowsprit. 


PUNCTUATION.—  WORDS   OMITTED.  53 

The  silkworm  feeds  upon  the  leaves  of  the  mulberry. 

Solon,  being  asked  by  Croesus  who  was  the  happiest  man, 
referred  the  King  of  Lydia  to  a  poor  cottager  of  Greece  who 
never  desired  greater  wealth  or  a  better  condition  than  he 
possessed. 


Lesson  55. 

PUNCTUATION.— WORDS   OMITTED. 
Providence,  E.  I.,  Jan.  25,  1891. 

If  this  is  the  heading  of  a  letter,  it  will  mean,  [this  letter 
is  written  in]  Providence  [which  is  in  the  state  of]  R.I., 
[on]  Jan.  25,  [in  the  year]  1891. 

To  err  is  human ;  to  forgive,  [is]  divine. 
He  was  a  tall,  [and]  large  man. 

In  the  sentences  just  given  the  commas  take  the  place 
of  the  words  in  brackets. 

A  comma  should  generally  be  used  to  show  the  omission 
of  a  word  or  of  words  readily  understood  and  necessary  to  the 
sense. 

Explain  the  punctuation  of  the  following  sentences :  — 

Nathaniel  Hawthorne  was  born  at  Salem,  Mass.,  July  4, 
1804.  He  died  at  Plymouth,  N.H.,  Thursday,  May  19,  1864. 

Punctuate  these  sentences  :  — 

I  met  Col  Jones  at  East  Saginaw  Saginaw  Co  Mich  July  4 
1887. 

Columbus  set  sail  from  Spain  Friday  Aug  3  1492,  and  dis- 
covered the  New  World  Friday  Oct  12  1492. 


54  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

Geo  Washington  was  inaugurated  first  President  of  the 
United  States  Thursday  Apr  30  1789. 

This  refers  to  an  object  near  at  hand;  that  to  an  object 
farther  away. 

Virtue  brings  its  own  reward ;  vice  its  own  punishment. 


Lesson  56. 

CAUTIONS. 


Do  not  use :  — 


a  good  deal  for  a  great  deal, 
grow  smaller  for  become  smaller, 
not  hardly  for  hardly  or  scarcely, 
directly  for  as  soon  as, 
quite  a  for  a  large,  a  considerable, 
appreciate  for  value  highly, 
real  for  very. 

The  thought  is  that  the  deal  or  amount  is  great  in 
extent,  not  good  in  kind.  [  Very  much  or  considerable  is 
sometimes  still  better  than  a  great  deal.~\  To  grow  means  to 
increase :  we  may  say  grow  larger,  but  not  grow  smaller. 
Hardly  means  with  difficulty,  and  not  hardly  would  mean 
not  with  difficulty,  or  easily.  Directly  is  an  adverb,  not  a 
connective.  Quite  is  an  adverb,  hence  cannot  modify  a 
noun.  To  appreciate  means  to  have  a  just  estimate  of. 
Real  means  genuine,  true,  and  is  an  adjective,  not  an 
adverb. 

Select  the  right  word  or  phrase  from  those  in  brackets, 
and  explain  why  the  other  words  or  phrases  in  brackets 
should  not  be  used  in  these  sentences :  — 


BUSINESS  LETTERS.  55 

His  income  [grows,  becomes]  smaller  every  year. 

Open  the  door  [directly,  as  soon  as]  you  hear  his  footsteps. 

I  saw  [a  large,  quite  a]  quantity  of  apples  on  the  ground 
in  the  orchard. 

We  [scarcely,  don't  hardly]  expect  them  before  next  month. 

There  is  a  [good,  great]  deal  of  doubt  expressed. 

It  was  [very,  real]  kind  in  you  to  come. 

I  shall  start  [as  soon  as,  directly]  I  have  finished  this  piece 
of  work. 

She  seemed  to  [appreciate,  value  highly]  the  gift. 

I  can  [not  hardly,  scarcely]  decide  the  question. 

Lucile  has  grown  [real,  very]  tall. 

There  is  [much,  a  good  deal]  to  be  said  on  both  sides  of  the 
question. 

[Appreciate,  value  highly]  the  friendship  of  him  who 
stands  by  you  in  time  of  trouble. 

[Quite  a,  a  large]  crowd  soon  collected. 


Lesson  57. 

BUSINESS   LETTERS. 

Write  a  note  to  a  hackman  in  your  city,  and  ask  him  to 
call  at  your  residence  in  time  to  take  you  to  a  certain 
train. 

As  a  physician,  write  a  note  to  a  teacher,  asking  that 
one  of  your  patients  be  excused  from  singing-lessons  on 
account  of  a  throat  difficulty. 

Write  to  a  real  estate  agent  for  a  list  of  houses  which 
he  has  to  rent.  Limit  the  location,  size,  and  price. 

Write  the  answer  of  the  real  estate  agent. 


56  LESSONS  IN   LANGUAGE. 

Lesson  58. 

NUMBER. 

Number  is  the  form  of  a  word  by  which  is  shown  whether  the 
word  denotes  one  object  or  more  than  one. 

The  words  man  and  book  each  denote  a  single  object, 
and  are  in  the  singular  number.  The  words  men  and  books 
denote  more  than  one  object,  and  are  in  the  plural  number. 

Nouns  that  mean  one  are  in  the  singular  number. 

Nouns  that  mean  more  than  one  are  in  the  plural  number. 

GENERAL  RULE. 

The  plural  of  nouns  is  usually  formed  by  adding  s  or  es 
to  the  singular.     If  the  singular  ends  in  a  sound  with  which 
the  sound  of  s  will  unite,  s  is  added  to  make  the  plural; 
otherwise,  es  is  added  for  the  plural  form;  as, — 
gate        gates  form  forms 

tax          taxes  church         churches 


SPECIAL  RULES  FOR  PLURAL  FORMS. 

I.  The  plural  of  most  nouns  ending  in/or/e  is  formed 
by  changing/  orfe  to  ves  ;  as,  — 

half          halves  knife          knives 

leaf          leaves  self  selves 

II.  The  plural  of  most  nouns  ending  in  y  preceded  by 
a  vowel  is  formed  by  adding  s  to  the  singular ;  the  plural 
of  nouns  ending  in  y  preceded  by  a  consonant  is  formed 
by  changing  y  to  ies  ;  as,  — 

chimney         chimneys  study         studies 

day  days  sky  skies 


PUNCTUATION,   ETC.  57 

III.  The  plural  of  these  nouns  is  formed  irregularly; 
as,  — 

man          men  foot         feet  mouse      mice 

woman     women  tooth       teeth  louse        lice 

child        children         goose       geese          ox  oxen 

Lesson  59. 

PUNCTUATION.— WORDS   IN   PAIRS.  — YES   AND   NO. 

Words  used  in  pairs  take  a  comma  after  each  pair  ;  as,  — 

Sink  or  swim,  live  or  die,  survive  or  perish,  I  give  my  hand 
and  my  heart  to  this  vote. 

The  poor  and  the  rich,  the  weak  and  the  strong,  the  young 
and  the  old,  have  one  common  Father. 

Yes  and  no  are  equivalent  to  clauses  or  sentences,  and 
are  followed  by  the  same  mark  of  punctuation  as  the 
clause  or  sentence  for  which  they  stand  would  be. 

According  to  their  use,  they  may  be  followed  by  a  comma, 
a  semicolon,  a  colon,  a  period,  an  interrogation  point,  or  an 
exclamation  point.  See  Lesson  4. 

Lesson  60. 

SYNONYMS. 

Find  several  synonyms  for  each  of  the  following 
words :  — 

ludicrous  famous  suitable  huge 

wholly  merciless  strong  gentle 

stubborn  peevish  obscure  dreary 


58  LHSSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

Lesson  61. 

BUSINESS   LETTERS. 

Write  to  the  president  of  some  college  and  request  a 
catalogue. 

You  are  away  from  home  for  the  summer  vacation. 
Write  to  the  publishers  of  your  daily  paper,  and  direct 
that  the  paper  be  forwarded  to  your  summer  address. 


Lesson  62. 

DESCRIPTION. 
Describe :  — 

The  sheep.  The  goat.  The  cow. 

Lesson  63. 

SPECIAL   RULES    FOR    PLURAL    FORMS    (continued). 
IV.    Some  nouns  have  two  plurals ;  as,  — 

brother  jbrotners  Eof  the  same  family] 

(  brethren  [of  the  same  society] 
1  th      I  clothes  [garments] 

(  cloths  [kinds  of  cloth] 
-,.  (dies  [for  stamping] 

(  dice  [for  gaming] 
~  ,          f  fishes  [separately] 

1  fish  [collectively] 

(  geniuses  [men  of  talent] 
genius   1*  .L 

(genii  [spirits] 


LETTER  -  WRITING.  59 

.    ,          ( indexes  fof  books] 
index     \        .        i L  J 

( indices  [algebraic  term] 

penny    { Pennies  [seParatelj] 
( pence  [collectively] 

,  (  shots  [discharges  of  a  gun] 

1  shot  [pieces  of  metal] 
,    PC       {  staves  [ordinary  use] 

1  staffs  [military  term] 

V.  Some  nouns  have  but  one   form  for  both  singular 
and  plural  numbers ;  as,  — 

cod  deer  sheep 

trout  hose  swine 

means  species  amends 

VI.  Some  nouns  are  used  in  the  plural  only  ;  as,  — 


aborigines 

dregs 

pantaloons 

snuffers 

alms 

eaves 

pincers 

suds 

annals 

entrails 

riches 

tongs 

antipodes 

remains 

scales 

trousers 

ashes 

mumps 

scissors 

tidings 

nuptials 

shears 

victuals 

vitals 

VII.   The  following  nouns  appear  to  be  plural  in  form, 
but  are  used  in  the  singular  number  only :  — 

physics  news  mathematics 

politics  molasses          gallows 


Lesson  64. 

LETTER-WRITING. 


Imagine  yourself  a  pupil  in  some  city  of  South  Dakota, 
and  write  to  an  Eastern  friend  a  letter  telling  about  your 


60  LESSONS  IN   LANGUAGE. 

state,  its  climate,  products,  extensive  farms  and  manner  of 
cultivation,  its  tree  claims  and  homesteads,  etc. 

Write  a  letter  addressed  to  some  pupil  in  the  public 
schools  of  Saginaw,  Michigan,  asking  for  information  about 
the  manufacture  of  salt. 

Write  an  answer  to  the  last  letter. 


Lesson  65. 

SPECIAL,   RULES   FOR  PLURAL  FORMS  (continued). 

VIII.  Many  nouns  derived  from  foreign  languages  retain 
their  original  plurals  ;  as,  — 

genus  genera  crisis      crises  datum      data 

vertebra       vertebrae  focus      foci  larva        larvae 

IX.  When  a  noun  is  used  as  an  adjective,  it  takes  the 
singular  form  only ;  as,  — 

a  foot  rule.  But  we  should  say,  — 

a  ten-foot  pole.  a  pole  ten  feet  long. 

a  five-dollar  bill.  a  note  for  ten  dollars. 

a  ten-pound  note.  a  fence  six  feet  high. 

a  six-foot  fence.  a  twenty-five-horse-power  engine. 

X.  Compound     nouns     form     their    plurals    in    three 
ways,  — 

[a]  by  pluralizing  the  principal  word ;  as,  — 
son-in-law     sons-in-law  postal-card     postal-cards 

[6]  by  pluralizing  both  words ;  as,  — 

man-servant  men-servants 


GOOD  MANNERS.  61 

[c\  by  pluralizing  the  compound  noun  as  though  it  were 
a  single  word ;  as,  — 

cupful      cupfuls  horseshoe      horseshoes 

XL  Proper  nouns  form  their  plurals  like  common 
nouns.  A  proper  noun  and  a  title  may  have  either  the 
noun  or  the  title  pluralized ;  as,  — 

The  Miss  Hasgoods. 
The  Misses  Hasgood. 

XII.  The  plural  of  letters,  figures,  and  signs  is  formed 
by  adding  to  the  singular  the  apostrophe  and  s ;  as,  — 

15's,  +'s,  w's. 


Lesson  66. 

GOOD   MANNERS. 

Tell  what  constitutes  true  politeness  by  giving  the 
thoughts  of  the  following  quotations.  Arrange  the  quota- 
tions in  the  order  which  you  think  best,  and  then  express 
their  thoughts  in  your  own  words. 

Gentleness  is  the  great  point  to  be  observed  in  the  study 
of  manners. — N.  P.  WILLIS. 

A  small  unkindness  is  a  great  offence.  —  HANNAH  MOKE. 

Politeness  is  as  natural  to  delicate  natures  as  perfume  is  to 
flowers.  —  DE  FINOD. 

We  remain  shackled  by  timidity  till  we  have  learned  to 
speak  and  act  with  propriety.  —  SAMUEL  JOHNSON. 

Avoid  all  haste;  calmness  is  an  essential  ingredient  of 
politeness.  —  ALPHONSE  KARR. 


62  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

Politeness  is  to  goodness  what  words  are  to  thoughts.  — 
JOSEPH  JOUBERT. 

Life  is  not  so  short  but  there  is  always  time  enough  for 
courtesy.  —  EMEUS  ON. 

The  things  which  now  seem  frivolous  and  slight  will  be  of 
serious  consequence  to  you  after  they  have  once  made  you 
ridiculous.  — BOSCOMMON. 

The  person  who  screams,  or  uses  the  superlative  degree,  or 
converses  with  heat,  puts  whole  drawing-rooms  to  flight.  If 
you  wish  to  be  loved,  love  measure.  You  must  have  genius 
or  a  prodigious  usefulness,  if  you  will  hide  the  want  of  meas- 
ure. —  EMERSON. 

The  courtesies  of  a  small  and  trivial  character  are  the  ones 
which  strike  deepest  to  the  grateful  and  appreciating  heart.  — 
HENRY  CLAY. 

Ungraciousness  in  rendering  a  benefit,  like  a  hoarse  voice, 
mars  the  music  of  the  song.  —  FELTHAM. 

Gentleness,  cheerfulness,  and  urbanity  are  the  Three  Graces 
of  manners.  —  MARGUERITE  DE  VALOIS. 

Good  manners  are  made  up  of  petty  sacrifices.  —  EMERSON. 

Manners  are  an  art.  Some  are  perfect,  some  commendable, 
some  faulty ;  but  there  are  none  that  are  of  no  moment.  — 
JOUBERT. 

It  is  a  rule  of  manners  to  avoid  exaggeration.  —  EMERSON. 

Politeness  goes  far,  yet  costs  nothing.  —  SMILES. 

The  truest  politeness  comes  of  sincerity.  —  SMILES. 

Kind  nature  is  the  best ;  those  manners  next 

That  fit  us  like  a  nature  second-hand ; 

Which  are  indeed  the  manners  of  the  great.  —  TENNYSON. 

Politeness  consists  in  a  due  regard  for  the  rights  and  feel- 
ings of  others,  and  for  the  customs  of  the  people  among  whom 
one  is  placed. 


GENDER.  63 

Lesson  67. 

GENDER. 

Gender  is  the  distinction  of  nouns  and  pronouns  with  regard  to 
sex. 

The  gender  of  the  noun  shows  whether  we  are  speaking 
of  male  beings,  female  beings,  or  things  without  life. 

Nouns  are  of  the  masculine  gender  when  they  denote 
male  beings ;  as,  man,  boy,  lion. 

Nouns  are  of  the  feminine  gender  when  they  denote 
female  beings ;  as,  woman,  girl,  lioness. 

Nouns  are  of  common  gender  when  they  denote  either 
males  or  females ;  as,  parent,  teacher,  child,  pupil. 

When  words  of  common  gender  are  used,  they  are  to 
be  considered  masculine  unless  it  is  plain  that  they  are 
feminine ;  as,  — 

Every  person  is  the  architect  of  his  own  fortune. 

Nouns  are  of  the  neuter  gender  when  they  denote  things 
without  life;  as,  stone,  tree,  table. 

Nouns  are  of  the  neuter  gender  when  they  denote  living 
objects  whose  sex  is  not  considered ;  as,  bird,  fish,  insect. 

We  might  say,  "  That  is  a  pretty  babe.  Do  you  love  it  ?  " 
Here  the  sex  of  the  child  is  not  considered. 

Things  without  life,  arid  properly  of  the  neuter  gender, 
are  sometimes  spoken  of  as  though  having  life  and  sex ; 

as, — 

The  ship  carries  her  pennant  proudly. 

The  sun  sends  his  rays  to  the  earth. 

Sex  refers  to  living  beings  only ;  gender  applies  only  to 
nouns  and  pronouns.  There  are  two  sexes,  but  four 
genders. 


64  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

Lesson  68. 

LETTERS   OF   INTRODUCTION. 

A  letter  of  introduction  is  one  in  which  the  writer 
introduces  a  friend  or  an  acquaintance  to  another.  Such 
a  letter  is  intended  to  be  carried  by  the  person  introduced, 
and  should  never  be  sealed.  On  the  lower  left  hand  corner 
of  the  envelope  should  be  written  the  word  "Introducing," 
with  the  name  of  the  person  introduced. 

Copy  the  following  short  letter  of  introduction :  — 

21  EUCLID  AVE.,  CLEVELAND,  OHIO, 

Sept.  9,  1878. 
Mrs.  E.  L.  MASON, 

Omaha,  Kansas. 
MY  DEAR  FRIEND,  — 

It  is  with  much  pleasure  that  I  introduce  to 
you  Miss  Marion  Westfall,  a  friend  of  whom  you  have  often 
heard  me  speak. 

Miss  Westfall  is  intending  to  spend  the  winter  in  your  city, 
and  any  kindness  that  you  can  show  her  during  her  stay  will 
be  most  gratefully  appreciated  by 

Your  sincere  friend, 

JOSEPHINE  E.  GOULD. 

Write  a  letter  introducing  a  friend  of  yours  to  a  cousin. 
Write  a  letter  introducing  a  young  musician  to  a  music 
teacher  in  Dresden,  Germany. 


Lesson  69. 

GOOD   MANNERS. 

Write  two  rules  for  polite  conduct  at  the  table,  at  a 
lecture,  when  making  a  visit,  in  a  store. 


DESCRIPTION.  65 

Lesson  70. 

DESCRIPTION. 

In  Lesson  48  you  were  directed  to  write  a  description 
of  the  bear.  Your  description  was  probably  very  different 
from  this  which  follows,  and  perhaps  quite  as  good. 
Compare  the  two  descriptions,  and  see  if  you  cannot  now 
write  a  description  better  than  either. 

THE  BEAK. 

The  bear  is  a  large,  heavy-looking  beast,  with  a  thick  coat 
of  long,  soft,  shaggy  hair.  He  is  very  strong,  and,  although 
clumsy  in  form,  can  climb  trees  and  swim  with  ease  and  skill. 

Bears  are  either  brown,  black,  or  white. 

The  white,  or  polar  bear,  lives  in  the  cold  north.  There  the 
ground  is  ever  covered  with  snow,  and  the  sea  is  full  of  ice, 
even  in  June  and  July.  Bruin's  thick  fur  coat,  however, 
keeps  him  warm,  and  the  sharp  air,  without  making  him  un- 
comfortable, gives  him  a  good  appetite.  So  he  is  quite  at 
home  where  any  other  beast  would  die  of  hunger  and  cold. 

He  can  swim  in  the  water  as  well  as  he  can  walk  on  the 
land.  He  can  float  like  a  duck,  or  dive  like  a  fish.  His  feet 
never  slip  on  the  smooth  ice,  for  they  are  covered  with  long 
hair. 

Sometimes  he  finds  a  seal  asleep  on  the  ice,  or  dashes  after 
one  into  the  water.  Sometimes  he  dives  after  fish  and  catches 
them,  swift  though  they  are.  The  body  of  a  dead  whale  serves 
him  as  food  for  a  long  time.  When  seal,  or  fish,  or  dead 
whale  are  not  to  be  had,  the  bear  dines  on  berries  or  even  sea- 
weed, if  he  can  get  nothing  better. 

It  is  said  that  bears  never  attack  man  if  they  can  help  it. 
But  when  angry  they  are  very  fierce.  Rising  on  their  hind 
legs,  they  hug  the  victim  with  their  fore-paws. 


66 


LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 


The  bear  is  in  many  ways  of  use  to  man.  Many  articles  of 
dress  are  made  from  the  skin  and  fur.  The  flesh  is  good  for 
food,  and  the  fat  is  used  instead  of  oil. 


Lesson  71. 

GENDER. 

There    are    three   ways    of   indicating    the    gender   of 
nouns : — 

1.  By  the  use  of  different  words. 

MASCULINE.  FEMININE.  MASCULINE.  FEMININE. 

boy  girl                         sir  madam 

king  queen                     wizard  witch 

monk  nun                        horse  mare 

2.  By  changing  the  termination. 

MASCULINE.  FEMININE.  MASCULINE.  FEMININE. 

actor  actress  hero  heroine, 

administrator     administratrix      czar  czarina 

duke  duchess  lion  lioness 

3.  By  joining  a  distinguishing  word. 

MASCULINE.  FEMININE.  MASCULINE.  FEMININE. 

Mr.  Brown         Mrs.  Brown          he-goat  she-goat 

man-servant       maid-servant         buck-rabbit         doe-rabbit 

Name  the  gender  of  each  word  in  the  following  list,  and 
explain  in  what  way  the  gender  is  indicated :  — 


bachelor 

maid 

master 

mistress 

nephew 
Jew 
grandson 
husband 

niece 
Jewess 
granddaughter 
wife 

mesdames 
empress 
patroness 
lad 

messieurs 
emperor 
patron 
lass 

male-child 

female-child 

belle 

beau 

benefactress 

benefactor 

host 

hostess 

bride 

bridegroom 

brother-in-law 

sister-in-lawv 

CASE.— NOMINATIVE  CASE.  67 

Lesson  72. 

CASE.  — NOMINATIVE   CASE. 

The  form  or  use  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  which  shows  its  relation  to 
other  words  is  called  its  case. 

Nouns  and  pronouns  have  three  cases ;  nominative,  pos- 
sessive, and  objective. 

A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  the  subject  of  a  verb  is  in  the  nominative 
case. 

A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  the  complement  of  an  intransitive  verb 
is  in  the  nominative  case. 

Wallace  is  a  good  scholar. 

Wallace  is  the  subject  of  the  verb  is,  and  scholar  is  the 
complement  of  the  same  verb ;  both  are  in  the  nominative 
case. 

When  a  noun  denotes  the  person  or  thing  addressed  it  is  in  the 
nominative  case ;  as,  — 

Harold,  what  is  the  number  of  the  page  ? 

All  the  nouns  and  pronouns  in  the  sentences  below  are 
in  the  nominative  case.  Tell  which  of  the  rules  above 
applies  to  each. 

My  dear  Walter,  Jack  is  doing  very  well. 

Rhetoric  is  an  interesting  study. 

The  sun,  moon,  planets,  and  stars  are  not  stationary. 

When  quiet  is  restored,  I  will  go  on. 

Plato,  thou  reasonest  well. 

This  is  too  severe  a  storm,  Wilbur,  to  last  long. 

What  is  your  name,  my  brave  little  man  ? 

Because  a  mist  arose,  the  sport  was  ended. 

The  wave  is  mighty,  but  the  spray  is  weak. 

The  whole  sky  was  a  shadowless  blue. 

An  old  maxim  says  "  Honesty  is  the  best  policy." 


68  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

Lesson  73. 

LETTERS   OF   RECOMMENDATION. 

Copy  this  letter :  — 

PORTLAND,  ME.,  June  14,  1883. 
TO    WHOM    IT    MAY    CONCERN  : 

The  bearer,  Kate  Stafford,  has  been  in  my  employ  for  the 
last  five  years,  and  I  take  pleasure  in  testifying  to  her  honesty, 
faithfulness,  and  efficiency  in  general  housework.  She  is  a 
good  washer  and  ironer,  and  is  neat  and  careful  in  all  her 
work.  I  willingly  recommend  her  to  any  one  in  want  of 

her  services.  ^T       T    T    T> 

Mrs.  J.  L.  BENSON. 

Write  a  letter  of  recommendation  for  a  girl  who  has 
been  in  the  employment  of  a  certain  firm  as  saleswoman. 

Arthur  Harrison  has  been  book-keeper  for  Smith,  Pratt 
&  Co.,  in  Brooklyn,  but  is  obliged  to  leave  and  go  West 
on  account  of  his  health.  Write  the  letter  of  recom- 
mendation which  he  might  receive  from  his  employers. 

[Letters  of  recommendation  should  not  be  sealed.] 


Lesson  74. 

DESCRIPTION.  — THE   GRASSHOPPER. 

With  a  grasshopper  before  you,  answer  these  questions : — 

What  is  the  shape  of  a  grasshopper's  body  ?  What  is  its 
length  ?  What  are  its  divisions  ? 

What  is  the  shape  of  the  head  ?     What  parts  does  it  have  ? 

What  is  the  shape  of  the  thorax  ?  What  marks  are  there 
upon  it  ?  What  are  attached  to  the  thorax  ? 


APPOSITION.  69 

How  does  the  tail  compare  in  length  with  the  other  parts  ? 
In  size  ?  What  divisions  has  the  tail  ? 

Where  are  the  breathing-holes  ? 

Where  are  the  feelers  ?   What  is  their  size  ?    Shape  ?    Use  ? 

How  many  jaws  has  the  grasshopper  ?    How  do  they  move  ? 

How  many  legs  has  it  ?  What  is  their  size  ?  How  many 
joints  have  they  ?  What  is  the  shape  of  the  feet  ? 

How  many  wings  has  it  ?  What  is  their  size  ?  How  do 
they  differ  ?  What  parts  have  they  ? 


Lesson  75. 

APPOSITION. 

Peter  the  Hermit  preached  the  first  crusade. 
Here  hermit  tells  which  Peter  preached  the  first  crusade, 
and  is  joined  to  Peter  for  explanation. 

A  noun  or  pronoun  joined  to  another  noun  or  pronoun  to  explain 
it  is  said  to  be  in  apposition  with  the  word  to  which  it  is  joined, 
and  is  in  the  same  case ;  as,  — 

Mr.  Smith,  the  tinsmith,  is  my  neighbor. 
The  River  St.  Lawrence  rises  in  Lake  Ontario. 
A  noun  in  apposition  is  sometimes  united  to  the  noun 
which  it  modifies  by  or  or  as  ;  as,  — 

Peru,  or  the  land  of  the  Incas,  is  a  South  American  State. 
Industry,  as  the  conqueror  of  difficulties,  has  no  equal. 
Supply  words  in  apposition  with  the  following  nouns :  — 

Mr.  Brown       The  Hudson       Thomas      Shakspeare 
Joan  of  Arc     Henry  VIII.      London      Africa 
Tell  the  trades  or  professions  of  several  persons  by  means 
of  nouns  in  apposition. 


70  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

Lesson  76. 

PUNCTUATION.  — NOUNS   IN   APPOSITION. 

A  noun  in  apposition  with  another  noun  should  be  set  off 
by  commas,  unless  both  nouns  are  necessary  to  form  the 
name. 

A  noun  and  a  pronoun  in  apposition  should  not  be  sepa- 
rated by  a  comma. 

This  rule  includes  nouns  in  apposition  which  are  pre- 
ceded by  or  or  as. 

A  title  or  a  degree,  following  the  name  of  a  person,  is  a 
noun  in  apposition,  and  should  be  separated  from  the  name 
by  a  comma. 

Punctuate  these  sentences :  — 

Brussels  the  capital  of  Belgium  is  noted  for  its  manufac- 
tures of  carpets  and  laces. 

We  left  Pitt  in  the  zenith  of  prosperity  and  glory  the  ideal 
of  England  the  terror  of  France  the  admiration  of  the  whole 
civilized  world. 

Distinguish  between  it's  the  contraction  of  it  is  and  its  the 
personal  pronoun. 

The  Naval  Academy  an  academy  similar  to  the  Military 
Academy  is  located  at  Annapolis  Md. 

The  selectmen  or  trustees  as  they  are  called  in  some  states 
have  the  general  charge  of  the  executive  business  of  the  town. 

What  different  meanings  will  different  punctuations  of 
the  following  sentence  give  ? 

The  party  consisted  of  Mr.  Smith  a  clergyman  his  son  a 
lawyer  Mr.  Brown  a  Londoner  his  wife  and  a  little  child. 


ANALYSIS. —  WORDS  IN  APPOSITION.  71 

Lesson  77. 

GOOD   MANNERS. 

A  young  friend  wishes  to  know  what  he  should  do  with 
his  hat,  overcoat,  umbrella,  and  gloves,  when  making  a  call ; 
when  he  should  precede  a  lady ;  and  how  he  should  give 
introductions.  Write  a  set  of  directions  for  him  upon 
these  questions  of  polite  conduct. 


Lesson  78. 

ANALYSIS.—  WORDS   IN   APPOSITION. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences,  as  directed  on  page 
49:- 

1.  John  the  coachman  was  hurt.  2.  Mr.  Smith,  the  car- 
penter, may  be  living.  3.  Paul  the  apostle  had  been  impris- 
oned. 4.  Henry,  the  scholar,  was  crowned  king.  5.  Our 
country's  sixteenth  president,  Abraham  Lincoln,  is  considered 
a  martyr.  6.  You  did  it  yourself.  7.  Your  brothers,  Thomas 
and  Henry,  were  seen.  8.  My  brother  Philip's  eldest  son  lived 
a  hermit.  9.  The  reading-room  is  well  furnished  with  periodi- 
cals,—  quarterlies,  monthlies,  weeklies,  and  dailies.  10.  Pride, 
that  never-failing  vice  of  fools,  is  not  easily  defined.  11.  The 
letter  o  is  a  vowel.  12.  The  word  athwart  is  a  preposition. 

A  noun  in  apposition  may  be  marked  as  an  adjective 
element  with  the  letters  ap  above  the  line  ;  as,  — 

ap 

John  the  coachman  was  hurt. 


72  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

Lesson  79. 

LETTER-WRITING. 

Harlan  Endicott  is  obliged  to  leave  school  to  engage  in 
business,  and  desires  a  testimonial  from  his  teacher  as 
to  his  character  and  ability.  Write  his  request  for  this 
favor. 

Write  a  very  favorable  testimonial  from  the  teacher  in 
answer  to  the  foregoing  request. 

Write  the  teacher's  note  to  Harlan  Endicott,  in  which 
she  explains  why  she  must  refuse  to  give  a  favorable 
testimonial. 


Lesson  80. 

DESCRIPTION.  —  BUTTERFLY. 

Write  a  description  of  the  butterfly.     See  page  68. 
Lesson  81. 

POSSESSIVE   CASE. 

The  form  of  the  noun  which  denotes  possession  is  called  the 
possessive  form,  or  possessive  case ;  as,  — 

Ruth's  book  is  new. 

The  possessive  case  is  formed  from  the  nominative  by  the 
addition  of  's.  If  the  noun  is  plural,  and  ends  in  s,  the 
apostrophe  only  is  added. 


POSSESSIVE  CASE.  73 

The  s  is  sometimes  omitted  in  singular  nouns  when  its 
pronunciation  would  occasion  an  unpleasant  succession  of 
sounds ;  as,  for  conscience'  sake. 

The  idea  of  ownership  is  often  expressed  by  a  phrase 
introduced  by  the  preposition  of;  as,  — 

The  palace  of  the  queen. 

Besides  the  idea  of  ownership  or  possession,  the  posses- 
sive case  is  used  to  denote  source  or  origin,  kind  and 
measure;  as, — 

the  river's  brink,  the  sun's  ray  s, 

Solomon's  temple,  children's  shoes, 

a  week's  time,  a  pound's  weight. 

When  joint  ownership  is  indicated,  the  sign  of  posses- 
sion is  affixed  to  the  last  name  only;  as, — 

Mason  and  Dixon's  line. 

When  the  ownership  is  separate,  the  sign  is  affixed  to 
each  name ;  as,  — 

Look  in  Webster's  and  Worcester's  dictionaries. 

In  the  phrase  "  The  Queen  of  England's  domains,"  Queen 
is  a  noun  in  the  possessive  case,  but  the  sign  of  possession 
is  joined  to  the  word  England  because  Queen  of  England  is 
used  as  a  compound  noun. 

If  two  nouns  denoting  possession  are  in  apposition,  the 
sign  of  possession  is  affixed  to  the  last  one  only ;  as,  — 

For  David  my  servant's  sake. 
Give  the  possessive  singular  of  - 
man,  child,  somebody  else,  James,  Miss  Harris,  Mrs.  Adams. 


74  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

Give  the  possessive  plural  of  — 

mercy,  German,  child,  deer,  buffalo,  sheep,  mouse,  sister-in- 
law,  man-servant. 

Make  a  list  of  ten  plurals  that  end  in  s.  Use  each  of 
these  plurals  in  the  possessive  form  in  an  appropriate 
sentence. 

Make  a  list  of  ten  plurals  not  ending  in  s,  and  use  each 
in  a  similar  way. 


Lesson  82. 

ANALYSIS.  — POSSESSIVE  CASE. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences  as  directed  on  page  49 : 

1.  William's  father  will  come.  2.  His  old  horse  was  walk- 
ing. 3.  The  English  sailor's  hat  might  have  been  lost.  4.  My 
brother-in-law's  residence  is  palatial.  5.  Boston  is  Dr.  Frank- 
lin's native  place.  6.  Providence  was  Eoger  William's  home. 
7.  Your  opportunities  are  excellent.  8.  Morning's  golden 
light  is  breaking.  9.  Charles's  drawing  is  admired.  10.  The 
old  man's  hearing  is  good.  11.  The  Duke  of  Wellington's 
grave  was  seen. 

The  possessive  case  may  be  marked  as  an  adjective  ele- 
ment. The  sign  of  possession  will  distinguish  it  suffi- 
ciently from  the  adjective. 


William's  father  will  come. 


TELEGRAMS.  75 

• 

Lesson  83. 

TELEGRAMS. 

A  telegram   should  be  brief,  clear,  and  definite.      No 
unnecessary  words  should  be  used. 
Copy  the  following  telegram :  — 

HACKETTSTOWN,  N.J.,  Dec.  8,  1889. 
Mrs.  H.  S.  SINCLAIR, 

47  Wayne  St., 

New  Bedford,  Mass. 
Missed  train.     Shall  arrive  at  8.30  P.M. 

H.  S.  SINCLAIR. 

Write  the  following  telegrams  in  the  fewest  words  pos- 
sible :  — 

BALTIMORE,  MD.,  Aug.  5,  1882. 
E.  H.  TURNER,  Camden,  Maine. 

I  will  telegraph  you  Monday  when  you  may  expect  me. 
Am  unable  to'  travel  now.  Am  suffering  from  a  sprained 
ankle.  If  I  do  not  telegraph  you  on  Monday,  do  not  expect 
me  before  another  week. 

J.  W.  BLAKE. 

ALBANY,  N.Y.,  June  10,  1885. 
H.  M.  KICK, 

Board  of  Trade  Building, 

Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Do  as  you  think  best  regarding  Jones.  Shall  we  accept  the 
notes  of  Harland,  Marsh  &  Co.?  You  know  their  condition. 
Let  us  know  at  once.  Have  no  advice  to  offer  regarding 
Jones.  To  what  extent  shall  we  trust  Harland,  Marsh  &  Co.? 

E.  F.  McWniRTER. 


76  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

Lesson  84. 

MANNERS  AT  TABLE. 

Think  what  answers  you  would  give  to  these  questions, 
and  then  write  an  article  of  advice  about  Manners  at  the 
Table. 

What  preparations  should  you  make  before  coming  to  the 
table,  as  regards  your  hair,  face,  hands,  nails  ? 

When  should  you  be  seated  ? 

Where  should  you  place  your  napkin  ? 

What  advice  can  you  give  about  leaning  over  the  table, 
putting  elbows  upon  the  table,  fingering  napkin-ring  or  other 
articles  while  waiting  to  be  served,  keeping  the  mouth  shut 
while  eating,  eating  hastily  or  noisily  ? 

For  what  should  the  knife  be  used  ?  For  what  should  it 
not  be  used  ? 

How  should  the  fork  be  used  ? 

For  what  should  a  spoon  be  used  ?  How  should  soup  be  eaten  ? 

What  can  you  say  about  leaving  the  spoon  in  your  cup 
when  drinking,  about  drinking  from  a  saucer,  about  blowing 
upon  tea  or  coffee  to  cool  it,  about  tilting  a  soup-plate  to  get 
the  last  spoonful  ? 

How  should  a  slice  of  bread  be  eaten  ? 

What  should  you  "say  when  accepting  or  refusing  anything 
that  is  passed  you  ? 

How  should  you  ask  for  anything  ? 

How  should  guests  be  treated  at  your  table  ? 

How  should  a  pitcher  or  an  article  with  a  handle  be  passed 
to  others  ? 

If  you  are  waiting  upon  a  table,  at  which  side  of  those 
seated  should  dishes  be  passed  ? 


OBJECTIVE  CASE.  77 

What  should  be  done  in  case  of  an  accident,  such  as  spilling 
a  glass  of  water  ? 

What  topics  of  conversation  should  be  avoided  at  table  ? 

Where  should  knife  and  fork  be  placed  after  you  have 
finished  eating  ? 

What  can  you  say  about  the  use  of  a  toothpick  at  table  ? 

When  should  you  leave  the  table  ? 

If  you  wish  to  leave  before  the  others,  what  should  you  say, 
and  to  whom  should  you  say  it  ? 


Lesson  85. 

OBJECTIVE   CASE. 

A  noun  or  a  pronoun  used  as  the  object  of  a  verb  is  in  the  objective 
case ;  as,  — 

Edison  invented  the  phonograph. 

Intransitive  verbs  may  take  after  them  an  object  kindred 
in  meaning  to  the  verb ;  as,  — 

He  dreams  a  dream. 
He  sleeps  the  sleep  of  death. 
Let  us  live  a  life  of  faith. 
They  danced  a  minuet. 
They  played  a  losing  game. 

A  noun  or  a  pronoun  used  with  a  preposition  to  form  a  phrase  is 
called  the  object  of  the  preposition,  and  is  in  the  objective  case ;  as,  — 

After  the  war.  Before  the  magistrate. 

Tell  the  construction  of  the  nouns  and  pronouns  in  the 
following  paragraph :  — 

By  the  side  of  a  pond  a  company  of  idle  boys  were  watching 


78  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

some  frogs,  and  were  pelting  them  with  stones  whenever  they 
lifted  their  heads  above  the  water.  A  frog  finally  said  to 
them,  "It  may  be  fine  sport  for  you  to  cast  stones,  but  you 
forget  that  it  is  death  to  us." 


Lesson  86. 

ANALYSIS.  — OBJECTIVE   ELEMENTS, 
Analyze  the  following  sentences  :  — 

1.  We  saw  John.  2.  He  will  shut  this  door.  3.  Who 
opened  it  ?  4.  They  may  take  a  ride.  5.  Whom  did  you  see  ? 
6.  Stephen's  younger  brother  has  had  the  old  gentleman's 
spectacles.  7.  Bring  that  book.  8.  Who  has  been  using  this  ? 
9.  See  that  rocket.  10.  We  could  hear  an  unusual  noise. 
11.  Take  that.  12.  Our  little  party  could  hear  the  singing 
birds.  13.  He  gave  up  the  chase.  14.  I  like  that  ring,  that 
ancient  ring.  15.  The  boy  flew  his  kite.  16.  The  farmer 
grows  grain.  17.  They  ran  a  race.  18.  He  trotted  his  horse. 
19.  The  boy  walked  the  horse.  20.  They  will  run  the  boat. 


Lesson  87. 

DESCRIPTIONS.— THE    MOTH. 

Write  a  description  of  the  moth  according  to  the  direc- 
tions given  on  page  68. 

Compare  the  moth  and  the  butterfly. 


SYNONYMS.  79 

Lesson  88. 

SYNONYMS. 

Look  in  the  dictionary  for  the  exact  meaning  of  these 
words,  then  select  the  right  ones  to  fill  the  blanks  in  the 
sentences  which  follow :  — 

awkward,  neglect,  universal, 

clumsy,  negligence,  general. 

The  speaker  was  very in  his  appearance  and in 

his  manner. 

Many  girls  who  are  by  no  means ,  have  an gait. 

I  assure  you  that  such shall  never  happen  again. 

The  accident  was  due  to  the  of  the  switchman,  who 

had  hitherto  been  most  careful  in  his  duties. 

Do  not  place  too  much  confidence  in  him,  for  he  is  noted 
for  his . 

There  is  no   exception  to  the  devastation  along  the 

river,  and  poverty  is throughout  the  afflicted  region. 


Lesson  89. 

CASE   AND   GENDER. 

Tell  the  case  and  the  gender  of  each  noun  in  the  follow- 
ing sentences :  - 

The  way  was  long,  the  wind  was  cold. 

The  minstrel  was  infirm  and  old. 
The  child  is  father  of  the  man. 
Honesty  is  the  best  policy. 


80  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

The  breaking  waves  dashed  high 

On  a  stern  and  rock-bound  coast, 
And  the  woods  against  a  stormy  sky 

Their  giant  branches  tossed. 
We  shall  take  a  walk  in  the  morning. 

No  young  lady  could  have  a  better  safeguard  against  adver- 
sities of  fortune,  or  a  better  resource  in  time  of  need,  than  a 
good  knowledge  of  business  affairs. 

The  fly  sat  on  the  axle-tree  of  the  chariot-wheel  and  said, 
"  What  a  dust  I  do  raise  ! " 


Lesson  90. 

NATURAL   ORDER  OF  'WORDS. 

1.  The  boy  gains  friends. 

In  this  sentence  the  order  of  the  words  is  subject,  verb, 
object.  This  is  the  common  order. 

2.  The  polite  boy  gains  many  friends. 

What  is  the  order  of  this  sentence?  Where  are  the 
adjectives  placed? 

3.  The  polite  boy  of  good  character  will  readily  find  friends 
at  all  times. 

In  this  sentence  where  is  the  adjective  phrase  placed  ? 
Where  is  the  adverb  placed?  The  adverbial  phrase? 
Which  is  nearer  the  verb,  the  adverb  or  the  adverbial 
phrase  ? 

Sentences  1,  2,  and  3  are  written  in  the  natural,  or 
usual,  order  of  declarative  sentences. 

Which  comes  first  in  the  usual  order  of  declarative  sen- 
tences, subject  or  predicate?  What  adjective  modifiers 


ANALYSIS.  —  ADVERBIAL  ELEMENTS.  81 

come  before  the  noun  which  they  modify?  What  adjec- 
tive modifiers  come  after  the  noun  which  they  modify? 
In  what  order  are  the  modifiers  of  the  verb  placed? 

All  complements  of  verbs  are  usually  placed  directly 
after  them. 

In  imperative  sentences  the  subject  is  omitted,  or  it 
follows  the  verb  ;  as,  Come.  Stand  up.  Love  ye  the  Lord. 
Be  it  enacted. 

Lesson  91. 

ANALYSIS.  —  ADVERBIAL   ELEMENTS. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences  as  directed  on  page 
49:  — 

1.  The  sun  shone  brightly.  2.  Will  he  return  immediately  ? 
3.  They  have  gone  away.  4.  March  on.  5.  He  was  very  ill. 
6.  Where  has  he  gone  ?  7.  Their  trees  were  growing  rather 
slowly.  8.  The  old  house  still  remains.  9.  The  horse  stood 
quite  still.  10.  The  young  birds  were  very  much  frightened. 
11.  Flowers  were  peeping  out  everywhere.  12.  The  slothful 
seldom  respect  themselves.  13.  The  Israelites  passed  over 
safely.  14.  France  was  formerly  called  Gaul.  15.  He  re- 
ceived us  somewhat  formally.  16.  I  will  see  him  again. 
17.  *  The  various  animals  of  the  farmyard,  horses,  cows,  and 
sheep,  live  peaceably  together.  18.  McPherson  returned  home 
an  altered  man. 

An  adverbial  element  may  be  indicated  by  drawing  a 
line  beneath  it. 

_  ap  ap 

The  various  animals  of  the  farmyard,  horses,  cows,  and 


sheep,  live  peaceably  together. 


82  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

Lesson  92. 

TELEGRAMS. 

Write  a  business  telegram  containing  not  more  than  ten 
words. 

Write  a  telegram  ordering  a  stateroom  on  a  certain 
steamer  for  a  certain  date. 

Write  a  telegram  to  a  firm  in  New  York  City  inquiring 
why  certain  goods  have  not  been  forwarded. 

Write  a  telegram  in  answer  to  the  last. 


Lesson  93. 

DESCRIPTION.  —  THE   HOUSE-FLY. 

Write  a  description  of  the  house-fly,  as  directed  on  page 

68. 


Lesson  94. 

DIRECT  AND   INDIRECT  OBJECTS. 

1.  We  paid  him. 

2.  We  paid  his  wages. 

Each  of  these  sentences  seems  complete  in  itself.     We 
may  combine  them  and  say,  — 

3.  We  paid  him  his  wages. 

4.  We  paid  his  wages  to  him. 

In  the  first  sentence  him  completes  the  meaning  of  the 


ANALYSIS. — INDIRECT  OBJECTS.  83 

verb  paid,  and  is  hence  its  complement;  in  the  second 
sentence  wages  is  the  complement  of  paid ;  in  the  third 
sentence  Mm  and  wages  are  both  the  complements  of  paid; 
but  in  the  fourth  sentence  wages  is  the  only  complement 
of  paid.  The  meanings  of  the  third  and  of  the  fourth  sen- 
tence are  the  same,  but  the  construction  of  the  word  him  in 
the  two  sentences  is  different.  In  the  third  sentence  and 
also  in  the  first  sentence  him  is  in  the  objective  case 
because  it  is  a  complement  of  paid. 

A  complement  which  shows  that  upon  which  an  act  is  performed 
is  called  the  direct  object ;  a  complement  which  shows  to  or  for  whom 
or  what  an  act  is  done  is  called  an  indirect  object. 

Which  of  the  complements  in  the  four  sentences  at  the 
head  of  this  lesson  are  direct  objects?  Which  are  in- 
direct? 


Lesson  95. 

ANALYSIS. —INDIRECT   OBJECTS. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences  :  — 

1.  He  brought  me  a  knife.  2.  I  sold  her  a  book.  3.  She 
brought  her  brother  an  apple.  4.  He  asked  me  a  question. 
5.  I  told  him  a  story.  6.  He  asked  me  a  favor.  7.  We  pay 
him  his  wages.  8.  Anthony  offered  Caesar  the  crown.  9.  Aris- 
totle taught  Alexander  the  Great  philosophy. 

An  indirect  object  may  be  marked  as  a  complement  and 
the  letters  i.o.  placed  beneath  it ;  as,  — 

He  brought  me  a  knife. 


84  LESSONS  IN   LANGUAGE. 

Lesson  96. 

NATURAL   ORDER   OF  "WORDS. 

In  which,  of  the  following  sentences  are  the  words  in 
the  natural  order  ?  Write  in  the  natural  order  those  sen- 
tences not  already  so  written. 

1.  The  poor  bird  has  broken  its  wing. 

2.  The   rattlesnake   is   the   most  poisonous  snake  in  this 
country. 

3.  In  shady  nooks  you  will  find  the  modest  violet. 

4.  Of  cotton,  calico  is  made ;  of  flax,  linen ;  of  rags,  wood, 
or  straw,  paper  is  made. 

5.  A  large  carriage  containing  four  ladies  was  slowly  driven 
up  the  roadway. 

6.  Above,  the  sun  shone  forth  brightly,  but   underneath 
were  still  to  be  seen  the  effects  of  the  recent  storm. 

7.  One  thing  I  greatly  admire  in  him. 

8.  Happy  is  the  man  that  findeth  wisdom. 

9.  To  Kobinson  Crusoe  many  things  strange  and  unusual 
happened. 


Lesson  97. 

ADVERTISEMENTS. 

Copy  the  following  advertisements :  — 

WANTED  —  An  experienced  girl  to  do  general  housework  in 
a  large  family;  must  be  a  good  washer  and  ironer.  Good 
wages.  Apply  at  No.  17  Lafayette  St. 

WANTED  —  A  young  man  in  a  commission  house.  Address 
in  own  handwriting,  giving  references,  Box  378,  City. 


OBJECTIVE  CASE.  85 

A  young  man  twenty  years  old  desires  to  obtain  a  posi- 
tion as  clerk  or  assistant  book-keeper.  He  has  had  one 
year's  experience,  and  can  give  very  good  references.  He 
hopes  to  procure  such  a  position  by  advertising.  Write 
his  advertisement. 

A  retail  merchant  desires  to  secure  as  cashier  in  his 
store  a  young  man  who  is  a  good  penman.  He  is  very 
particular  about  the  character  of  the  one  whom  he  may 
employ.  Write  his  advertisement  for  a  cashier. 

Mrs.  F.  W.  Smith  is  a  dressmaker  who  wishes  to  obtain 
several  sewing-girls.  She  will  teach  them  the  art  of 
dressmaking  in  return  for  their  services.  Write  her  ad- 
vertisement. 

A  girl  wants  a  place  to  do  general  housework.  She 
objects  to  washing  and  ironing,  but  is  willing  to  go  into 
the  country.  Write  her  advertisement. 


Lesson  98. 

OBJECTIVE    CASE. 

In  the  following  sentences  name  the  nouns  and  pro- 
nouns which  are  the  direct  objects  of  verbs,  and  those 
which  are  the  indirect  objects :  - 

They  handed  the  driver  a  whip. 

We  will  send  you  an  invitation. 

Are  you  telling  me  the  truth  ? 

He  told  me  this  story. 

He  offered  her  his  hand. 

Are  you  telling  the  truth  to  me  ? 

You  may  ask  him  some  questions. 


86  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

Use  each  of  the  following  verbs  in  a  sentence  containing 
a  direct  and  an  indirect  object.  State  which  is  the  direct 
object  and  which  is  the  indirect :  — 

allow,  bring,  buy,  carry,  do,  get,  give,  lend,  make,  offer, 
present,  promise,  provide,  refuse,  send,  show,  tell,  write. 


Lesson  99. 

CAUTIONS. 


Do  not  use : 


lots  o/for  many,  any  for  at  all, 

it  transpired  for  it  happened,          party  for  person, 
clever  for  good-natured,  except  for  unless, 

aggravate  for  vex  or  annoy. 

Two  diminutives  should  not*  be  used  together.  Do  not 
say  "  little  brooklet." 

Two  negatives  should  not  be  used  for  one.  Do  not  say, 
"  She  didn't  say  nothing."  Two  negatives  make  an 
affirmative. 

Copy  these  sentences,  selecting  the  right  word  or  phrase 
from  those  in  brackets :  — 

I  attended  the  lecture,  but  was  unable  to  hear  [any,  at  all]. 
She  cannot  see  [at  all,  any]. 
A  strange  thing  [transpired,  happened]. 
I  agreed  to  meet  a  certain  [person,  party]  in  town. 
I  visited  the  Louvre  [lots  of,  many]  times  while  in  Paris. 
She  is  not  capable,  but  very  [clever,  good-natured]. 
Happiness  is  not  complete  [unless,  except]  it  is  shared  with 
another. 


ADVERBIAL    USE  OF  NOUNS.  87 

This  event  [happened,  transpired]  soon  after  my  arrival. 

I  have  corrected  [many,  lots  of]  mistakes  in  this  essay. 

This  is  the  [party,  person]  to  whom  I  sold  my  house. 

A  man  will  never  be  what  he  ought  to  be  [except,  unless] 
he  knows  what  he  is. 

He  always  [aggravated,  provoked]  me  by  his  manner. 

It  was  exceedingly  [aggravating,  provoking]  to  see  the 
train  leave  the  station  just  as  we  arrived. 

I  never  was  more  [annoyed,  aggravated]. 

A  drenching  rain  [aggravated,  provoked]  our  discomfort. 


Lesson  100. 

DESCRIPTION. 
Describe :  — 

The  spider.  The  bee. 


Lesson  1O1. 

ADVERBIAL   USE   OF   NOUNS. 

A  noun  has  sometimes  an  adverbial  use. 

1.   He  came  here.  2.   He  came  home. 

3.   He  came  early.  4.   He  came  this  morning. 

5.   The  river  is  very  wide.  6.    The  river  is  a  mile  wide. 

In  the  first  sentence,  here  is  an  adverb  telling  where  he 
came.  In  the  second  sentence,  the  noun  home,  standing 
for  the  phrase  to  his  home,  likewise  tells  where  he  came, 
and  is  used  as  an  adverbial  element.  In  the  fourth  sen- 


88  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

tence,  morning  is  an  adverbial  element,  modifying  came. 
In  the  sixth  sentence,  the  noun  mile  has  the  same  use  that 
the  adverb  very  has  in  the  fifth.  It  is  a  modifier  of  wide, 
arid  hence  is  used  as  an  adverb. 

A  noun  used  as  an  adverb  is  in  the  objective  case. 

Find  the  adverbial  elements  in  the  following  sen- 
tences :  — 

This  morning  James  shovelled  through  a  snow-drift  six 
feet  high. 

He  skated  a  mile  in  ten  minutes. 

They  sat  still  an  hour. 

This  road  is  a  mile  longer  than  that. 

You  must  get  to  school  ten  minutes  earlier  to-morrow  morn- 
ing, or  I  shall  keep  you  fifteen  minutes  later  at  night. 

I  don't  care  a  penny  for  his  opinion. 

I  have  come  a  long  distance  to  see  you,  and  intend  to  remain 
all  the  afternoon. 

You  will  do  a  great  deal  better  than  most  scholars  if  you 
find  all  these  adverbial  objectives. 


Lesson  102. 

ANALYSIS.— ADVERBIAL   OBJECTIVE. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences  and  parse  the  nouns :  — 

1.  We  waited  ten  days.  2.  The  book  is  worth  a  dollar. 
3.  We  rode  fifty  miles  that  day.  4.  We  were  a  little  tired. 
5.  What !  could  ye  not  watch  with  me  one  hour  ?  6.  He  gave 
his  father  a  house  two  stories  high,  and  was  not  a  penny  the 
poorer  for  it.  7.  They  walked  north  twenty  miles  the  first 
day. 


INTERROGATIVE  SENTENCES.  89 

An  adverbial  objective  may  be  marked  as  a  complement 
with  the  letters  a.o.  beneath  the  line. 

We  waited  ten  days. 


Lesson  1O3. 

INTERROGATIVE   SENTENCES. 

Sentences  are  made  interrogative  by  the  arrangement  of 
the  words,  or  by  the  use  of  interrogative  words. 

Interrogative  words  are  adjectives,  pronouns,  or  adverbs. 

The  interrogative  adjectives  are  which,  whose,  and  what  ; 
the  interrogative  pronouns  are  who,  whose,  whom,  which,  and 
what;  the  interrogative  adverbs  are  when,  where,  why, 
wherefore,  how,  etc. 

In  sentences  made  interrogative  by  the  arrangement  of 
the  words,  or  by  an  interrogative  adverb,  the  subject  follows 
the  verb  or  the  first  word  of  the  verb-phrase ;  as,  — 

Do  not  they  think  too  little  who  talk  too  much  ? 
Have  I  done  aught  of  value  to  my  fellow-men  ? 
Where  was  Washington  Irving  born  ? 
How  old  was  Longfellow  when  he  died  ? 

This  order  is  called  the  interrogative  order. 

If  the  question  is  asked  by  means  of  an  interrogative 
pronoun  or  adjective,  either  the  natural  or  the  interrogative 
order  may  be  followed ;  as,  — 

What  is  vanity  ?     What  have  you  done  ? 

What  planter  will  yoke  a  sapling  with  a  falling  oak  ? 


90  LESSONS   IN   LANGUAGE. 

Copy  from  your  Reader  two  sentences  made  interroga- 
tive by  the  arrangement  of  the  words,  two  sentences  which 
begin  with  an  interrogative  adverb,  two  which  begin  with 
an  interrogative  pronoun,  and  two  which  begin  with  an 
interrogative  adjective. 

Study  the  sentences  that  you  have  selected,  and  tell  the 
position  of  the  subject  in  each.  Which  sentences  have  the 
natural  order?  Which  have  the  interrogative  order? 


Lesson  104. 

MANNERS  AT   SCHOOL. 

Think  what  answers  you  would  give  to  these  questions, 
and  then  write  an  article  of  advice  about  Polite  Manners 
at  School. 

Should  good  manners  be  shown  in  a  parlor  more  than  in  a 
school-room  ? 

What  should  you  say  when  you  first  see  your  teacher  before 
school,  and  upon  leaving  if  you  stop  to  speak  with  her  after 
school  is  dismissed  ? 

Is  it  polite  to  address  your  teacher  as  "  Teacher  "  ? 

What  is  your  opinion  of  a  scholar  who  is  untidy  in  his 
appearance  ? 

Is  it  polite  to  lounge  in  your  seat  ?  How  should  you  stand  ? 
If  asked  to  distribute  materials  to  a  class,  how  should  it  be 
done  ? 

How  should  your  books  be  treated  ? 

How  should  the  school  grounds,  the  building,  the  furniture 
be  kept  ? 

When  you  are  obliged  to  pass  in  front  of  your  teacher  what 
should  you  say  ? 


MODIFYING   COMPLEMENTS.  91 

What  impolite  acts  in  school  do  you  often  notice  ? 
How  should  you  treat  a  new  scholar  ? 

What  should  you  say  for  any  favor  that  is  shown  you  ? 
[Never  say  "Thanks."] 


Lesson  105. 

MODIFYING   COMPLEMENTS. 

They  made  him  captain.  They  made  him  unhappy. 

In  each  of  these  sentences  the  verb  made  requires  two 
complements  to  make  its  use  as  a  predicate  complete ;  one 
expressed  by  the  word  him,  denoting  the  person  acted 
upon ;  the  other  expressed  by  the  words  captain,  unhappy, 
denoting  the  result  of  the  action  expressed  by  made. 

These  words,  captain  and  unhappy,  express  some  condi- 
tion of  him.  Captain  is  a  modifying  noun ;  that  is,  in 
apposition  with  him;  unhappy  is  an  adjective  modifying 
him.  These  modifiers  of  him,  which  is  the  direct  object 
of  the  verb  made,  are  also  complements  of  the  same  verb. 

Observe  that  there  are  two  sets  of  double  complements, 
direct  and  indirect,  and  direct  and  modifying. 

They  made  him  a  boat. 
They  made  him  a  scholar. 

The  act  of  making  expressed  by  made  in  the  first  sen- 
tence was  upon  the  boat:  boat  is  the  direct  object,  and 
him  the  indirect  object,  showing  for  whom  the  act  was 
done. 

The  act  expressed  by  made  in  the  second  sentence  was 
upon  him,  which  is  the  direct  object,  while  scholar  is  the 
modifying  object. 


92  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

Lesson  106. 

ADVERTISEMENTS. 

A  man  wants  a  position  as  travelling  salesman.  He  has 
had  fifteen  years'  experience  in  this  work,  and  can  furnish 
many  references.  He  would  prefer  to  travel  for  some 
manufacturing  house.  Write  his  advertisement. 

A  child  has  been  lost.  Write  an  advertisement  stating 
circumstances  and  describing  the  child. 

Prepare  an  advertisement  announcing  a  special  sale  of 
goods  at  greatly  reduced  rates. 

Annie  Price  has  found  a  valuable  piece  of  lace.  Write 
her  notice  of  this  for  the  paper. 

Look  at  the  advertisements  in  some  newspaper,  and  copy 
two  which  you  think  are  well  written. 


Lesson  107. 

INTRODUCTORY    "WORDS. 

Almost  any  change  in  the  natural  order  of  a  sentence 
emphasizes  some  element  of  the  sentence.  There  are, 
however,  two  changes  in  the  natural  order  so  common 
that  they  simply  give  variety,  and  not  emphasis.  These 
changes  consist  in  the  use  of  the  introductory  words  there 
and  it. 

When  a  sentence  begins  with  there  used  as  an  introduc- 
tory word,  the  verb  precedes  its  subject ;  as,  — 

There  arose  a  shrill  cry. 

There  was  no  report  made  of  the  matter. 


CASE  OF  PRONOUNS.  93 

The  order  of  almost  any  declarative  sentence  may  be 
changed  by  placing  there  at  the  beginning. 

The  pronoun  it  may  also  be  used  to  introduce  a  sen- 
tence; as, — 

It  is  the  love  of  money  that  is  the  root  of  all  evil. 

The  real  subject  then  follows  the  verb,  and  is  considered 
to  be  in  apposition  with  it. 

Change  the  order  of  the  following  sentences  by  prefixing 
the  word  there  or  it :  — 

No  clouds  were  to  be  seen.  A  flash  of  lightning  came.  To 
be  misjudged  is  often  the  fate  of  genius.  No  vacant  chairs 
were  in  the  room.  To  have  good  laws  is  useless  if  we  have 
not  good  men  to  execute  them.  Evils  are  of  two  kinds, — 
those  which  cannot  be  cured,  and  those  which  can.  Not  to 
store  the  mind  with  knowledge,  but  to  give  activity  and  vigor 
to  its  powers,  is  the  great  object  of  education.  Upon  the 
other  side  of  the  wide  Atlantic  a  beautiful  island  lies.  That 
we  are  never  too  old  to  learn  is  a  true  saying. 

Lesson  108. 

CASE  OF  PRONOUNS.  — A  COMMON  ERROR. 

They  are  coming  to  see  me.  This  book  is  for  me. 

Let  me  try  to  do  it.  They  came  on  behind  me. 

Let  me  go  to  speak  to  him.  I  went  to  town  yesterday. 

He  spoke  to  me. 

Copy  each  of  these  sentences,  and  before  the  word  me  or 
/  insert  the  words  William  and. 

They  are  coming  to  see  William  and  me. 
If  you  write  this  sentence,  "  They  are  coming  to  see 
William  and  I,"  you  make  as  great  a  mistake  as  to  say, 


94  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

"  They  are  coming  to  see  I."  Observe  that  other  words 
joined  to  a  pronoun  by  and  do  not  in  any  wise  change  the 
form  or  use  of  the  pronoun. 

Fill  the  blanks  in  these  sentences  with  a  noun  and  a 
pronoun  connected  by  and :  — 

I  wish  you  would  come  with . 

were  the  ones  selected. 

It  was  done  by 


Did  you  ever  see 


live  near  Lake  Michigan. 
•  have  started  for  Oregon. 


She  said  it  was  given  to . 

He  thought  there  was  some  secret  between 

are  great  friends. 

It  made quite  provoked. 


Lesson  109. 

ANALYSIS.  —  ADJECTIVE   PHRASES. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences  as  directed  on  page 
49:  — 

1.  Tints  of  beauty  paint  the  sky.  2.  The  time  for  studying 
is  past.  3.  The  love  of  money  is  the  root  of  all  evil.  4.  The 
inhabitants  of  Finland  are  called  Finns.  5.  The  acorn  of 
small  size  becomes  a  giant  oak.  6.  The  brother  of  Richard 
the  king  usurped  the  throne.  7.  The  house  under  the  hill 
was  burned.  8.  Every  person  but  him  had  deserted  the  ship. 

A  phrase  may  be  marked  as  an  adjective  element  or  an 
adverbial  element,  according  to  its  use.  That  the  element 
is  a  phrase  is  shown  sufficiently  by  the  line  connecting  the 
words  together  as  a  single  element. 


DESCRIPTION.  95 

Lesson  110. 

DESCRIPTION. 

Another  form  for  the  description  of  animals  is  given  in 
the  outline  below. 

1.  What  kind  of  animal  is  it  ? 

2.  With  what  is  it  covered  ? 

3.  What  are  the  parts  of  its  body  ? 

4.  Where  does  it  live  ? 

5.  What  is  its  nature  ? 

6.  What  does  it  do  ? 

7.  Upon  what  does  it  live  ? 

8.  Of  what  use  or  harm  is  it  ? 

NOTE.  —  Question  2  may  include  the  appearance  of  the 
animal,  6  its  habits,  and  some  incident  or  reflection  may  be 
added  at  the  close. 

See  how  this  outline  is  used  in  the  following  descrip- 
tion :  — 

THE  SQUIRREL. 

The  squirrel  is  a  rodent.  He  is  covered  with  a  soft  coat  of 
fur,  gray  or  reddish  brown  in  color. 

The  long,  bushy  tail  which  makes  the  squirrel  look  so.  pretty 
is  longer  than  his  body,  and  the  squirrel  uses  it  to  balance 
himself  and  to  guide  him  in  leaping. 

Each  fore  foot  has  four  toes,  while  each  hind  foot  has  five. 
The  toes  are  furnished  with  sharp,  hooked  claws.  The  squirrel 
has  strong,  sharp  teeth,  whiskers,  pretty,  bright  eyes,  and 
long,  pointed  ears. 

The  squirrel  lives  in  the  woods  and  spends  most  of  his  time 
in  the  trees,  leaping  from  limb  to  limb  and  from  tree  to  tree 


96  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

with  great  agility.  He  is  very  nimble,  lively,  playful,  and 
pert,  but  also  very  timid,  and  very  skilful  in  hiding  on  the 
appearance  of  danger. 

In  the  fork  of  a  tree,  high  up  from  the  ground,  he  builds 
his  nest  of  moss,  twigs,  and  dry  leaves. 

His  food  consists  of  nuts,  berries,  fruits,  and  the  young 
shoots  of  trees.  He  always  lays  by,  in  holes  in  the  ground, 
a  hoard  of  nuts  for  his  winter's  food. 

The  squirrel  is  useful  because  he  destroys  the  larvae  of 
insects,  but  he  sometimes  does  much  harm  by  devouring  corn 
and  other  grains,  and  by  gnawing  off  the  top  shoots  of  trees. 


Lesson  111. 

• 

NEWSPAPER  ARTICLES. 

BURGLARY. 

Last  night  the  residence  of  Mr.  William  Robinson  at  No. 
37  Atwell's  Ave.,  was  visited  by  a  burglar,  who  gained  an 
entrance  through  a  window  in  the  rear  of  the  house. 

Finish  this  article  by  describing  the  circumstances. 
State  that  a  suspicious-looking  character  was  seen  by  a 
neighbor,  lurking  in  the  alley  back  of  Mr.  Robinson's 
house,  and  describe  his  appearance  so  closely  that  the 
police  will  have  no  difficulty  in  identifying  him. 

Write  an  account  of  a  runaway  accident.  State  when 
it  occurred,  who  were  in  the  carriage,  why^the  horse  took 
fright,  through  what  streets  he  ran,  and  how  he  was  finally 
stopped.  Tell  what  damage  was  done.  Relate  some 
exciting  incident  of  the  adventure,  giving  due  credit  to 
any  one  who  showed  courage  or  presence  of  mind. 


PERSON   OF  NOUNS  AND  PRONOUNS.  97 

Lesson  112. 

PERSON  OF  NOUNS  AND  PRONOUNS. 

You  may  recite  your  lesson. 

I  shall  dismiss  you  soon. 

We  think  he  should  speak  more  distinctly. 

She  reads  her  book.     He  gave  it  to  her. 

They  brought  their  skates  with  them. 

He  says  it  is  his,  and  I  say  it  is  mine. 

Which  of  the  pronouns  in  the  illustrative  sentences 
refer  to  the  person  speaking?  Which  refer  to  the  person 
spoken  to?  Which  nouns  and  which  pronouns  refer  to 
the  person  or  thing  spoken  of  ? 

Pronouns  which  represent  the  speaker  are  of  the  first  person, 
those  which  represent  the  person  or  persons  spoken  to  are  of  the 
second  person,  and  those  which  represent  what  is  spoken  of  are  of 
the  third  person. 

Pronouns  which  show  by  their  form  of  what  person  they  are,  are 
called  personal  pronouns. 

Which  of  the  pronouns  in  the  illustrative  sentences  are 
of  the  first  person?  Which  are  of  the  second  person? 
Which  are  of  the  third  person  ? 

Every  pronoun  must  be  of  the  same  person,  number, 
and  gender  as  its  antecedent. 

A  noun  is  of  the  first  person  when  it  is  in  apposition 
with  a  pronoun  of  the  first  person  ;  as,  — 

I,  Maurice,  am  ready  to  recite. 

We  boys  are  going  skating  after  school. 

A  noun  is  of  the  second  person  — 


98  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

1.  When  it  is  in  apposition  with  a  pronoun  of  the  second 
person ;  as,  — 

We  will  bring  you  girls  something  this  afternoon. 
Ye  crags  and  peaks,  Fm  with  you  once  again. 

2.  When  it  names  the  person  spoken  to  ;  as,  — 
Eunice,  come  here. 

In  all  other  uses,  nouns  are  of  the  third  person. 

Tell  the  person,  number,  and  gender  of  each  pronoun 
and  noun  in  the  following  sentences  :  — 

We,  the  people  of  the  United  States,  in  order  to  form  a 
more  perfect  union,  to  establish  justice,  to  insure  domestic 
tranquillity,  to  provide  for  the  common  defence,  to  promote 
the  general  welfare,  and  to  secure  the  blessings  of  liberty  to 
ourselves  and  our  posterity,  do  ordain  and  establish  this  Con- 
stitution for  the  United  States  of  America. 

Rouse  ye,  Romans  ;  rouse  ye,  slaves  ! 

We,  the  pupils  of  the  first  division,  have  only  one  session 
each  day. 


Lesson  113. 

DESCRIPTION. 

Write  a  description  of :  — 

The  partridge.         The  woodpecker.         The  swan. 
The  ostrich.  The  robin. 

Write  descriptions  of   those   birds  only  of   which  you 
can  find  good  specimens  or  good  pictures. 

• 


SYNONYMS.  99 

Lesson  114. 

SYNONYMS. 

Fill  each  blank  in  this  lesson  with  the  right  word  from 
this  list :  — 

crowd  herd  drove  shoal  flock 

swarm  gang  crew  band  company 

A of  fish  had  surrounded  the  ship. 

There  was  too  great  a  —    —  of  people  for  comfort. 

A of  cattle  now  grazes  where  the  house  once  stood. 

The of  bees  alighted  upon  the  nearest  bough. 

There  was  a of  thieves  among  the of  travellers. 

The  horse  was  so  badly  frightened  by  a of  swine  that 

it  became  unmanageable. 

He  fired  into  a  -  -  of  wild  pigeons  and  killed  many  of 
them. 

There  was  a of  robbers  awaiting  the  train. 

A of  wild  horses  roamed  over  the  prairies. 

Beneath,  a of  silver  fishes  glides. 

A  mutiny  arose  among  the  ship's . 


How  many  lambs  are  there  in  this 


Lesson  115. 

ANALYSIS. —ADVERBIAL   PHRASES. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences :  — 

1.  We  will  take  a  walk  in  the  morning.  2.  They  may 
have  ridden  through  the  town.  3.  A  treaty  of  peace  was 
signed  at  Paris.  4.  They  have  rushed  through  like  a  hurri- 
cane. 5.  The  hat  may  be  too  large  for  him.  6.  He  spoke 


100  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

with  the  proper  accent.  7.  The  water  will  be  too  cold  for 
bathing.  8.  In  ancient  times  France  was  called  Gaul.  9.  The 
world  is  bright  before  thee.  10.  Captains  Clark  and  Hender- 
son were  wounded  in  the  late  battle. 


Lesson  116. 

NEWSPAPER    ARTICLES. 

Write  a  newspaper  article  telling  about  the  improve- 
ments that  have  been  made  in  your  city  during  the  past 
year. 

Write  a  newspaper  article  praising  some  summer  resort. 

The  following  verdict  was  given  at  an  inquest.  Write 
it  correctly. 

Mr.  George  Binns  came  to  death  by  getting  strucked  from 
the  elevated  train  on  West  Broadway,  on  October  10th  — 
10.45  a.m. 

We  blame  the  Elevated  K.E.  not  having  different  signals  to 
give  their  working  people  sufficient  time  to  retire  fur  enough 
out  of  danger.  There  shall  be  a  loud  hearing  signal  be  given 
at  least  one  block  from  the  spot  where  their  employees  are 
working  and  the  people  must  be  instructed  especially  to  new 
hands  how  far  they  must  go  away  out  of  the  way  that  they 
will  not  be  catched  by  engine  or  cars. 

Lesson  117. 

MANNERS   ON   THE    STREET. 

Think  what  answers  you  would  give  to  the  following 
questions,  and  then  write  an  article  of  advice  about 
Manners  on  the  Street. 


COMPOUND  PERSONAL  PRONOUNS.       101 


What  can  you  say  about  boisterous;  pondiici;  on  the  street, 
jostling  against  others,  eating,  pointing  at  'objects,  turning  and 
staring  at  persons  whom  you  have  plas^edi  balling,  a^l*(iss  ,the 
street  to  any  one  on  the  other  side  ?"  * 

What  are  proper  forms  of  greeting  when  meeting  acquaint- 
ances on  the  street  ?  What  are  improper  forms  ? 

If  you  wish  to  talk  with  a  person  whom  you  meet,  what 
should  you  do  ? 

Should  three  or  four  walk  side  by  side  on  the  street  ? 

In  meeting  persons,  which  side  of  the  walk  should  you 
take? 

When  should  a  gentleman  precede  a  lady  companion  ? 

If  while  walking  with  any  one,  you  should  wish  to  leave, 
should  you  step  in  front  or  behind  your  companion  to  do  so  ? 

When  should  a  gentleman  lift  his  hat  ? 

When  should  a  gentleman  offer  a  lady  his  arm  ?  Should 
he  ever  take  her  arm  ? 


Lesson  118. 

COMPOUND    PERSONAL    PRONOUNS. 

4 

By  adding  self  to  my,  our,  thy,  your,  him,  her,  and  it,  and 
selves  to  our,  your,  and  them,  we  obtain :  — 

myself,  thyself,  yourself,  himself,  herself,  itself,  ourselves, 
yourselves,  themselves. 

These  are  called  compound  personal  pronouns,  and  are 
used  in  the  nominative  and  objective  cases. 

Write  sentences  containing  each  of  the  compound  per- 
sonal pronouns  in  the  nominative  case.  In  the  objective 
case. 


102  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

Wesson  119. 

.    '   INSCRIPTION. 

Describe :  — 

The  hen.  The  duck.  The  turkey. 

Lesson  12O. 

ABSTRACT.  —  OUTLINE.  —  REPRODUCTION. 

An  abstract  is  a  writing  containing  in  brief  form  the 
essential  parts  of  a  longer  writing.  The  important  ideas 
are  retained,  but  the  details  are  omitted. 

An  outline  is  expressed  in  words,  phrases,  or  detached 
sentences ;  an  abstract,  in  smooth  and  connected  sentences. 

Write  an  outline,  an  abstract,  and  a  full  reproduction 
of  the  following  selection  from  James  T.  Fields'  "  If  I 
Were  a  Boy  Again,"  found  in  "  Underbrush." 

KEEPING  A  DIARY. 

If  I-  were  a  boy  again,  I  would  have  a  blank-book  in  which  I 
would  record,  before  going  to  bed,  every  day's  events  just  as 
they  happened  to  me  personally.  If  I  began  by  writing  only 
two  lines  a  day  in  niy  diary,  I  would  start  my  little  book,  and 
faithfully  put  down  what  happened  to  interest  me. 

On  its  pages  I  would  note  down  the  habits  of  birds  and  of 
animals  as  I  saw  them ;  and  if  the  horse  fell  ill,  down  should 
go  his  malady  in  my  book,  and  what  cured  him  should  go 
there  too.  If  the  cat  or  the  dog  showed  any  peculiar  traits, 
they  should  all  be  chronicled  in  my  diary,  and  nothing  worth 
recording  should  escape  me. 


DECLENSION.  103 

Lesson  121. 

DECLENSION. 

The  variation  in  form  of  nouns  and  pronouns  to  express  change 
in  number  and  case  is  called  declension. 

The  declension  of  nouns  has  been  given  sufficiently  in 
the  directions  for  the  formation  of  plurals  and  of  the  pos- 
sessive case.  The  nominative  and  objective  cases  of  nouns 
have  the  same  form. 

[NOTE.  —  The  regular  variations  in  form  of  the  parts  of  speech  are 
three  :  declension,  comparison,  and  conjugation.  Declension  belongs  to 
nouns  and  pronouns ;  comparison,  to  adjectives  and  adverbs ;  and  con- 
jugation, to  verbs.] 

DECLENSION  OF  THE  PERSONAL  PRONOUNS. 

FIRST  PERSON.  SECOND  PERSON. 

Poetic  Form.         Common  Form. 

SING.  PLU.  SING.  PLU.  SING.  PLU. 

NOM.  I            we  thou        ye               you 

Poss.  my         our  thy          your           your 

OBJ.    me         us  thee         ye              you 

THIRD  PERSON. 

SING.  PLU. 

NOM.  he       she  it                   they 

Poss.  his      her  its                  their 

.     OBJ.    him     her  it                    them 

With  the  exception  of  his,  the  possessive  forms  given  in 
the  table  have  an  adjective  use  only ;  i.e.,  they  are  used 
only  as  modifiers  of  nouns.  His  is  used  both  as  an  adjec- 
tive and  as  a  pronoun. 

Mine,  ours,  thine,  yours,  hers,  and  theirs  are  additional 
forms  implying  possession,  but  used  as  pronouns  in  the 
nominative  and  objective  cases. 


104  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

Lesson  122. 

PUNCTUATION.  —  PARENTHETICAL   EXPRESSIONS. 

This  is  too  hard. 

That,  too,  is  very  difficult. 

Madrid,  which  is  the  capital,  lies  in  the  central  part  of 
Spain. 

The  interior  of  Mexico  consists  of  lofty  mountain  ranges 
and  high  plains,  called  table-lands,  lying  between  them. 

The  peninsula  of  Alaska,  which  is  a  part  of  the  United 
States,  is  inhabited  by  Indians. 

Read  each  sentence  at  the  head  of  this  lesson,  omitting 
the  part  set  off  by  commas.  Does  each  sentence  seem 
complete  without  the  part  omitted  ?  The  parts  set  off  by 
commas  in  these  sentences  may  be  called  parenthetical. 

Parenthetical  expressions  are  those  not  essential  to  the 
meaning  nor  to  the  structure  of  the  sentence  in  which  they 
stand.  They  are  independent  expressions  or  modifying  ele- 
ments loosely  connected  to  the  words  which  they  modify. 

Parenthetical  expressions  should  be  separated  from  the 
rest  of  the  sentence  by  a  comma  or  commas. 

To  which  commas  in  this  lesson  will  this  rule  apply  ? 

Write  from  dictation  the  illustrative  sentences,  and 
apply  the  rule  just  given. 

The  following  expressions  are  frequently  used  paren- 
thetically :  — 

Accordingly,  too,  also,  consequently,  finally,  however,  indeed, 
moreover,  namely,  perhaps,  undoubtedly,  in  fact,  in  short,  in 
reality,  of  course,  in  a  word,  without  doubt,  to  be  sure,  as  it 
were,  as  a  matter  of  course,  generally  speaking. 


DESCRIPTION.  —  NARRATION.  —  VOICE.  105 

Lesson  123. 

DESCRIPTION. 
Describe :  — 
The  dove.  The  canary.  The  sparrow. 

Lesson  124. 

NARRATION. 

THE  REED  AND  THE  OAK. 

Write  an  imaginary  conversation  between  a  little  reed 
and  a  huge  oak,  in  which  the  oak  boasts  of  its  superior 
strength. 

A  violent  wind  destroys  the  oak,  but  leaves  the  reed 
unharmed.  Give  the  reason  for  this,  and  add  the  words 
of  the  reed  after  the  wind  has  ceased. 

Lesson  125. 
VOICE. 

Voice  is  the  form  of  the  verb  which  shows  whether  the  subject  is 
the  doer  or  the  receiver  of  the  action  expressed  by  the  verb. 

If  the  subject  of  a  verb  represents  the  doer  of  the  action,  the  verb 
is  said  to  be  in  the  active  voice  ;  as,  — 

Maurice  throws  the  ball. 

If  the  subject  of  a  verb  represents  the  receiver  of  the  action,  the 
verb  is  said  to  be  in  the  passive  voice  ;  as,  — 

The  ball  is  thrown  by  Maurice. 


106  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

As  an  intransitive  verb  cannot  represent  its  subject 
as  being  acted  upon,  it  has  the  form  of  the  active  voice  only. 

The  wind  carried  the  ship  into  the  harbor. 

The  ship  was  borne  by  the  wind  into  the  harbor. 

Silence  does  not  always  mark  wisdom. 

Wisdom  is  not  always  marked  by  silence. 

The  burden  becomes  light  which  is  cheerfully  borne. 

Whoever  looks  for  a  friend  without  imperfections  will  never 
find  what  he  seeks. 

Ask,  and  it  shall  be  given  you ;  seek,  and  ye  shall  find ; 
knock,  and  it  shall  be  opened  unto  you. 

How  the  rain  falls  ! 

Do  at  once  what  you  have  to  do. 

Have  you  heard  the  news  ? 

Name  the  verbs  in  the  sentences  above.  Which  of  them 
are  transitive  verbs  in  the  active  voice?  Which  are  tran- 
sitive verbs  in  the  passive  voice?  [If  any  verbs  are  in 
the  passive  voice,  you  may  be  sure  that  they  are  transitive 
verbs.]  Which  are  intransitive  verbs  ? 


Lesson  126. 

PUNCTUATION.—  WORDS   IN   CONTRAST. 

Liberal,  not  lavish,  is  kind  Nature's  hand. 

Intrinsic  worth,  and  not  riches,  ought  to  produce  esteem. 

As  thy  days,  so  shall  thy  strength  be. 

We  ought  not  to  betray,  but  to  defend,  our  country. 

Words  and  phrases  placed  in  contrast  to  each  other  should 
be  separated  by  a  comma. 

Explain  the  use  of  the  comma  in  the  illustrative  sen- 
tences. 


NEWSPAPER   ARTICLES.— REPRODUCTION.         107 

Punctuate  the  following  sentences  :  — 

Elijah  knew  that  rain  was  coming  not  by  the  rush  of  winds 
or  gathering  of  clouds  but  by  a  little  speck  in  the  heavens  no 
bigger  than  a  man's  hand. 

Success  is  usually  gained  not  by  sudden  bound  but  by  steady 
effort. 

He  was  a  distinguished  statesman  but  a  bad  man. 

The  President  should  be  the  head  of  the  nation  and  not  of  a 
party. 

Opportunities  to  be  a  blessing  and  not  a  curse  must  be 
employed. 

Be  familiar  but  by  no  means  too  intimate. 

The  one  shall  be  taken  and  the  other  left. 


Lesson  127. 

NEWSPAPER  ARTICLES. 

Write  for  a  newspaper  an  account  of  a  visit  made  to 
some  factory  or  mill. 

Imagine  that  you  have  seen  a  railroad  accident,  and 
write  an  article -describing  it. 


Lesson  128. 

REPRODUCTION.  —  See  Page  102. 

SELF-KNOWLEDGE. 

If  I  were  a  boy  again,  one  of  the  first  things  I  would  strive 
to  do  would  be  this :  I  would,  as  soon  as  possible,  try  hard  to 


108  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

become  acquainted  with  and  then  deal  honestly  with  myself, 
to  study  up  my  own  deficiencies  and  capabilities,  and  I  would 
begin  early  enough,  before  faults  had  time  to  become  habits ; 
I  would  seek  out  earnestly  all  the  weak  points  in  my  char- 
acter ;  and  then  go  to  work  speedily  and  mend  them  with 
better  material;  if  I  found  that  I  was  capable  of  some  one 
thing  in  a  special  degree,  I  would  ask  counsel  on  that  point  of 
some  judicious  friend,  and  if  advised  to  pursue  it,  I  would 
devote  myself  to  that  particular  matter,  to  the  exclusion  of 
much  that  is  foolishly  followed  in  boyhood. 

JAMES  T.  FIELDS. 


Lesson  129. 

MODE. 

The  forms  of  the  verb  which  show  the  manner  in  which  it  asserts 
its  meaning  are  called  modes.  There  are  four  modes  :  the  indicative, 
potential,  subjunctive,  and  imperative. 

If  a  verb  states  a  fact  or  asks  a  question  in  regard  to  a  fact,  it  is 
in  the  indicative  mode ;  as,  — 

Genius,  like  humanity,  rusts  for  want  of  use. 
Was  Charles  Sumner  a  native  of  Massachusetts  ? 

If  a  verb  asserts  permission,  power,  or  obligation  by  the  use  of 
may,  can,  must,  might,  could,  would,  or  should,  or  asks  a  question  using 
these  words,  it  is  in  the  potential  mode ;  as,  — 

We  can  learn  wisdom  from  failure  better  than  from  success. 

If  the  verb  expresses  a  supposition,  or  implies  that  something  is 
untrue  or  is  doubtful,  it  is  in  the  subjunctive  mood ;  as,  — 

If  it  were  done  when  'tis  done, 

Then  'twere  well  it  were  done  quickly. 


NARRATION.  —  TENSE.  109 

If  the  verb  expresses  a  command  or  a  request,  it  is  in  the  impera- 
tive mode;  as, — 

Never  lose  a  chance  of  saying  a  kind  word. 
Write  sentences  illustrating  each  of  the  modes. 


Lesson  130. 

NARRATION. 

HELPING  EACH  OTHER. 

A  bee  fell  into  a  stream,  A  bird  broke  off  a  leaf  from 
a  tree  arid  threw  it  to  the  bee,  which  was  thus  saved. 
How? 

A  short  time  after,  a  hunter  was  taking  aim  to  shoot 
the  bird,  when  the  bee  saved  the  bird's  life.  How? 

Write  this  out  and  add  some  thoughts  which  the  story 
suggests. 

Lesson  131. 

TENSE. 

1.  Ralph  goes  to  school  every  morning. 

2.  Ralph  went  to  school  this  morning. 

3.  Ralph  will  go  to  school  this  afternoon. 

4.  Ralph  is  not  at  home ;  he  has  gone  to  school. 

5.  Ralph  did  not  see  the  procession,  for  he  had  gone  to 
school  before  it  passed. 

6.  Ralph  will  have  gone  to  school  before  nine  o'clock. 

The  verbs  italicized  in  these  six  sentences  are  all  forms 
of  one  verb,  go,  and  show  by  their  form  to  what  time  they 
refer. 


110  LESSONS  IN   LANGUAGE. 

The  form  of  the  verb  which  shows  to  what  time  it  refers  is 
called  tense. 

There  are  three  general  divisions  of  time :  present,  past, 
and  future. 

The  form  of  the  verb  which  refers  to  present  time  is 
called  present  tense ;  to  past  time,  past  tense ;  to  future 
time,  future  tense. 

Tenses  may  also  show  that  the  act  or  state  which  they 
assert  is  completed. 

The  form  of  the  verb  which  shows  that  an  act  or  state 
is  completed  [perfect]  at  the  present  time  is  called  the 
present  perfect  tense;  at  a  past  time,  the  past  perfect 
tense ;  at  a  future  time,  the  future  perfect  tense. 

How  many  tenses  are  there?  Name  them.  To  what 
time  does  each  refer?  Which  denote  completed  acts? 


Lesson  132. 

PUNCTUATION. 

Copy  the  following  sentences  and  insert  commas  where 
needed. 

Syracuse  noted  for  its  production  of  salt  is  in  the  central 
part  of  the  state  of  New  York. 

Brooklyn  on  Long  Island  opposite  New  York  is  famous  for 
its  churches. 

New  Orleans  sometimes  called  the  Crescent  City  was  once 
the  capital  of  Louisiana  and  is  the  largest  city  in  the  South. 

When  all  the  words  of  a  series  are  connected  by  and  or  some 
such  word  the  commas  should  be  omitted. 

Edelweiss  is  a  little  flower  something  like  our  life-ever- 
lasting which  grows  underneath  the  snow  on  the  high  Alps 
its  meaning  is  noble  purity. 


ESS  A  F.  —  REPR  OD  UCTION.  Ill 

Lesson  133. 

ESSAY.  —  RAILROADS. 

Write  a  short  essay  on  this  subject  from  the  following 
hints :  — 

HISTORY. — Introduce  subject  by  referring  to  old  stage- 
coach—  travelling  then  very  slow  —  George  Stephenson  — 
first  locomotive  —  first  railroad  between  Manchester  and 
Liverpool  in  1830  —  first  road  in  our  country  —  now  in  every 
civilized  land. 

CONSTRUCTION.  —  Describe  the  line,  taking  notice  of  the 
bridges,  viaducts,  tunnels,  and  stations  —  the  care  necessary 
in  construction  —  rails. —  wheels  of  carriages,  etc. 

VALUE  AND  IMPORTANCE.  — Kapidity  of  travelling  —  comfort 
to  dwellers  in  town  and  country  —  exchange  of  productions. 


Lesson  134. 

REPRODUCTION.  —  PERSEVERANCE. 

If  I  were  a  boy  again,  1  would  practise  perseverance  oftener, 
and  never  give  a  thing  up  because  it  was  hard  or  inconvenient 
to  do  it.  There  is  no  trait  more  valuable  than  a  determination 
to  persevere  when  the  right  thing  is  to  be  accomplished.  We 
are  all  inclined  to  give  up  easily  in  trying  or  unpleasant  situ- 
ations ;  and  the  point  I  would  establish  with  myself,  if  the 
choice  were  again  within  my  grasp,  would  be  never  to  relin- 
quish my  hold  on  a  possible  success  if  mortal  strength  or 
brains  in  my  case  were  adequate  to  the  occasion. 

That  was  a  capital  lesson  which  Professor  Faraday  taught 


112  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

one  of  his  students  in  the  lecture-room  after  some  chemical 
experiment.  The  lights  had  been  put  out  in  the  hall,  and  by 
accident  some  small  article  dropped  on  the  floor  from  the 
professor's  hand.  The  professor  lingered  behind,  endeavoring 
to  pick  it  up.  " Never  mind/'  said  the  student;  "it  is  of  no 
consequence  to-night,  sir,  whether  we  find  it  or  not."  —  "  That 
is  true,"  replied  the  professor,  "  but  it  is  of  grave  consequence 
to  me  as  a  principle  that  I  am  not  foiled  in  my  determination 
to  find  it." 

Perseverance  can  sometimes  equal  genius  in  its  results. 
"There  are  only  two  creatures,"  says  the  Eastern  proverb, 
"  which  can  surmount  the  Pyramids,  — the  eagle  and  the  snail." 

JAMES  T.  FIELDS. 


Lesson  135. 

PERSON   AND   NUMBER   OF  VERBS. 

I  am  here.  Thou  art  here. 

He  is  here.  We  are  here. 

The  verbs  in  the  sentences  above  are  in  the  present 
tense  of  the  indicative  mode.  The  form  of  the  verb 
depends  upon  the  person  and  number  of  its  subject. 

The  forms  and  uses  of  the  verb  which  show  its  agree- 
ment with  the  number  and  person  of  its  subject  are  called 
the  number  and  person  of  the  verb. 

A  verb  has  the  same  person  and  number  as  its  subject. 

Tell  the  voice,  mode,  tense,  person,  and  number  of  each 
verb  in  the  following  sentences :  — 

The  most  precious  acquisition  is  the  gaining  of  a  friend. 
Study  wisdom,  and  you  will  reap  pleasure. 


STORY  TO  BE  IMITATED.  113 

"If  we  could  make  this  country  sober,"  said  Lord  Cole- 
ridge, "  we  could  shut  up  nine-tenths  of  her  prisons." 

Base  all  your  actions  upon  a  principle  of  right;  preserve 
your  integrity  of  character,  and  in  doing  this  never  reckon 
the  cost. 

He  who  fills  his  heart  with  the  truths  of  the  poets  may 
work  them  out  in  heroic  deeds. 

Be  not  simply  good ;  be  good  for  something. 

If  to  do  were  as  easy  as  to  know  what  to  do,  chapels  had 
been  churches,  and  poor  men's  cottages  princes'  palaces. 

Were  we  to  take  as  much  pains  to  be  what  we  ought  to  be, 
as  we  do  to  disguise  what  we  really  are,  we  might  appear  like 
ourselves  without  the  trouble  of  any  disguise  at  all. 


Lesson  136. 

STORY  TO   BE   IMITATED. 

Compare  the  two  following  stories  and  notice  that  the 
story  of  "  The  Two  Farmers  "  is  written  in  imitation  of 
that  of  "  The  Two  Goats." 

THE  Two  GOATS. 

Two  goats  met  upon  a  narrow  bridge  which  led  across  a 
deep  mountain  stream.  They  were  going  in  opposite  direc- 
tions, and  neither  one  would  retreat  for  the  other.  After 
quarrelling  for  some  time  they  began  to  fight,  and  finally,  both 
los'ing  their  balance,  they  fell  over  into  the  stream  below.  They 
saved  themselves  only  by  great  effort. 

THE  Two  FARMERS. 

Two  farmers  quarrelled  about  a  meadow,  each  claiming  it  as 
his  own.  As  they  could  not  agree,  they  had  a  long  law-suit 


114  LESSONS  IN   LANGUAGE. 

over  the  matter.  At  last  the  following  verdict  was  rendered : 
"  Since  both  have  equal  right  to  the  meadow,  it  must  be  sold, 
and  the  money  divided  between  them."  This  was  done.  The 
cost  of  the  law-suit,  however,  was  so  great  that  the  money 
received  from  the  sale  of  the  meadow  was  not  sufficient  to 
pay  it,  and  each  farmer  had  to  sell  his  house  to  make  up  the 
necessary  sum. 

Write  a  story  of  your  own  that  shall  be  in  imitation  of 
that  of  "  The  Two  Goats," 


Lesson  137. 

STYLE.  —  EXAGGERATION. 

The  manner  in  which  one  expresses  his  thoughts  by 
means  of  words  is  called  his  style.  To  write  in  a  good 
style,  one  must  express  his  thoughts  clearly,  and  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  impress  and  please  others. 

A  good  style  in  writing  must,  therefore,  possess  clear- 
ness, force,  and  attractiveness. 

These  terms,  clearness,  force,  and  attractiveness,  should 
not  be  considered  as  entirely  distinct  each  from  the  others ; 
for  whatever  adds  to  the  clearness  of  a  sentence  or  para- 
graph adds  to  its  force,  and  whatever  adds  to  its  force 
adds  to  its  attractiveness.  In  the  practical  work  of  com- 
position, however,  whatever  pains  the  writer  takes  in  the 
selection  of  his  words  or  in  their  arrangement  is  taken 
mainly  to  make  his  writing  more  clear,  or  more  forcible,  or 
more  attractive,  and  for  some  one  of  these  purposes  more 
distinctly  than  for  another.  Hence,  how  to  make  his  style 
more  clear  and  forcible  and  attractive  is  that  upon  which 
the  young  writer  especially  needs  instruction. 


PRINCIPAL   PARTS   OF  VERBS.  115 

There  is  one  general  rule  for  good  writing:  Put  the 
right  word  in  the  right  place. 

The  right  word  will  not  express  more  than  we  mean. 
Such  words  as  awful,  tremendous,  stupendous,  extremely, 
perfect,  magnificent,  glorious,  should  not  be  used  unless 
they  fitly  express  our  thoughts.  Do  not  say,  "I  am  tired 
to  death,"  when  you  are  merely  very  tired.  Do  not  say, 
"  It  is  certainly  so,"  wrhen  you  merely  suppose  it  is  so. 

Improve  the  following  sentences  by  making  any  changes 
you  think  necessary  :  — 

I  have  been  deluged  with  letters  upon  this  subject. 

It  was  a  stupendous  sight  which  met  our  eyes  from  the  top 
of  the  building. 

Miss  Abbott  is  the  most  charming  person  that  ever  lived ; 
she  is  simply  adorable. 

What  has  happened  to  make  you  look  so  supremely  happy  ? 

The  crowd  was  so  immense  that  it  was  absolutely  impossible 
to  get  past  the  store,  but  I  finally  succeeded  by  superhuman 
efforts. 

After  playing  a  few  moments  in  the  yard  the  child  came  in, 
saying  that  she  was  almost  frozen. 

I  have  thought  of  you  continually  to-day ;  but  I  had  an 
innumerable  number  of  callers,  and  could  not  get  away  to  see 
you  until  now. 


Lesson  138. 

REGULAR  AND    IRREGULAR  VERBS. 

The  present  infinitive  of  a  verb  is  called  its  root.  From 
this  root  are  formed  the  past  indicative  and  the  past  parti- 
ciple. 

These  three  parts  of  a  verb  are  called  its  principal  parts, 


116  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

because  when  these  parts  are  known  the  other  parts  can 
be  given  readily. 

Regular  verbs  are  those  which  form  their  past  indica- 
tive and  past  participle  by  adding  d  or  ed  to  the  root ;  as, 
hope,  hoped,  hoped ;  climb,  climbed,  climbed. 

Irregular  verbs  are  those  which  do  not  form  their  past 
indicative  and  past  participle  by  adding  d  or  ed  to  the 
root;  as,  go,  went,  gone. 


Lesson  139. 

SYNONYMS. 

Fill  each  blank  in  this  lesson  with  the  right  word  from 
this  list,  and  tell  why  you  use  each  in  preference  to  any 
other  :  — 

copy        model        pattern        specimen         sample 

He  carried  a  small  -  of  the  machine  with  him,  and  was 
very  successful  in  making  sales. 

Ask  for  -  of  his  best  coffee.  i^fcf  is 

You  may  make  three  --  of  this  document,  "f«  $$'*'' 

Is  this  the  only  --  of  your  work  that  you  can  show  me  ? 

The  -  of  that  wall-paper  is  excellent  though  the  coloring 
is  faulty. 

Here  is  a  large  quantity  of  -  —  ,  but  we  do  not  keep  the 
articles  in  stock. 

He  is  a  great  botanist  and  has  many  rare  -  . 


Lesson   14O. 

DESCRIPTION. 

Compare  this  outline   with  the   description  which  fol- 
lows :  — 


DESCRIPTION.  117 

AN  APPLE.  —  OUTLINE. 

1.  What  it  is. 

2.  Where  and  how  it  grows. 

3.  Its  form,  size,  and  appearance. 

4.  Its  parts  —  their  form,  size,  and  qualities. 

5.  How  it  differs  from  other  fruit. 

6.  Its  uses. 

DESCRIPTION  or  AN  APPLE. 

An  apple  is  a  fruit  that  grows  on  trees  in  temperate  cli- 
mates. It  is  nearly  round,  of  various  sizes,  but  usually  from 
two  to  four  inches  in  diameter,  and  of  various  hues  and  shades 
—  green,  yellow,  russet,  and  red. 

At  one  end  is  the  stem  which  fastens  it  to  the  tree  on  which 
it  grows;  at  the  other,  a  little  hollow  in  which  are  bits  of 
leaves. 

Its  skin  is  smooth  and  tough.  Its  pulp  is  juicy  and  pleas- 
ant to  the  taste.  In  the  centre  are  the  seeds  in  little  cases. 
When  the  apple  is  ripe,  these  seeds  become  dark-colored. 

The  apple  and  the  quince  belong  to  the  same  family  of 
fruits,  but  the  quince  has  many  seeds  in  each  cell,  while  the 
apple  has  only  two.  The  pulp  of  the  quince  differs  from 
that  of  the  apple  in  being  always  very  hard  and  acid,  and 
its  skin  is  much  tougher  than  that  of  the  apple. 

Apples  are  used  for  food.  They  are  eaten  both  raw  and 
cooked.  From  apple  juice  cider  is  made.  The  pulp  of  apples 
is  sometimes  dried,  and  then  it  will  keep  a  long  time.  From 
dried  apples  sa'uce  and  pies  are  made. 

Name  ten  things  which  you  think  may  be  described  by 
the  same  outline.  Describe  two  of  them. 

Name  something  that  could  not  well  be  described  by  the 
outline  in  this  lesson.  Make  a  suitable  outline  for  its  de- 
scription. 


118  LESSONS   IN   LANGUAGE. 

Lesson  141. 

A   COMPARISON   OF   STYLE. 

Compare  the  two  following  selections,  and  explain  why 
one  is  better  than  the  other :  — 

It  was  pleasant  upon  the  river.  A  barge  or  two  went  past 
laden  with  hay.  Reeds  and  willows  bordered  the  stream  ;  and 
cattle  and  gray,  venerable  horses  came  and  hung  their  mild 
heads  over  the  embankment.  Here  and  there  was  a  pleasant 
village  among  trees,  with  a  noisy  shipping-yard;  here  and 
there  a  villa  in  a  lawn. 

It  was  perfectly  delightful  upon  the  river.  We  could  see 
barge  after  barge  passing,  heaped  up  with  tons  upon  tons  of 
hay.  The  banks  of  the  stream  presented  a  dense  mass  of 
reeds  overtopped  by  the  long,  waving  branches  of  sad  willows, 
beyond  which  ancient  cattle  and  still  more  ancient  horses 
could  be  seen.  There  were  also  lovely  little  villages,  whose 
calm  peace  was  disturbed  only  by  the  tumultuous  shipping- 
yards,  and  perfectly  charming  villas  surrounded  by  the  love- 
liest of  lawns. 


Lesson  142. 

IRREGULAR   VERBS. 

For  convenience  of  study  irregular  verbs  may  be  divided 
into  the  following  classes :  — 

Class  I.  Verbs  whose  past  indicative  and  past  participle 
are  formed  by  adding  t  to  the  root,  with  or  without  other 
change. 


IRREGULAR   VERBS. 


119 


NOTE.  —  The  letter 

E.  after  a  verb  signifies 

that  the  verb  has  also  the 

regular  form. 

bereave 

bereft  E. 

bereft  E. 

kneel 

knelt  E. 

knelt  E. 

beseech 

besought 

besought 

lean 

leant  E. 

leant  E. 

bring 

brought 

brought 

leap 

leapt  E. 

leapt  E. 

burn 

burnt  E. 

burnt  E. 

learn 

learnt  E. 

learnt  E. 

buy 

bought 

bought 

leave 

left 

left 

catch 

caught 

caught 

lose 

lost 

lost 

creep 

crept 

crept 

pen 

pent  E. 

pent  E. 

deal 

dealt  E. 

dealt  E. 

rap 

rapt  E. 

rapt  E. 

dream 

dreamt  E. 

dreamt  E. 

sleep 

slept 

slept 

feel 

felt 

felt 

spoil 

spoilt  E. 

spoilt  E. 

fight 

fought 

fought 

sweep 

swept 

swept 

keep 

kept 

kept 

weep 

wept 

wept 

Class  II.  Verbs  which  change  the  final  consonant  of  the 
root  to  t  to  form  the  past  indicative  and  the  past  parti- 
ciple. 

bent 

blent  E. 

blest  E. 

built  E. 

drest  E. 

dwelt  E. 


bend 

blend 

bless 

build 

dress 

dwell 

gild 


bent 
blent  E. 
blest  E. 
built  E. 
drest  E. 
dwelt  E. 
gilt  E. 


gilt  E. 


gird 
lend 

girt  E. 
lent 

girt  E. 
lent 

pass 
rend 

past  E. 
rent  E. 

past  E. 
rent  E. 

send 

sent 

sent 

spend 

spent 

spent 

Class  III.   Verbs  whose  principal  parts  are  alike. 

beset  cut  let  rid  shut  spread 

bet  E.  hit  put  set  slit  E.  sweat  E. 

burst  hurt  quit  E.  shed  spit  wet  E. 

cast  knit  E.  read  shred  E.  split 

Class  IV.   Verbs  whose  past  indicative  and  past  parti- 
ciple are  alike  and  formed  from  the  root  by  vowel  change. 


120 

LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

abide 

abode 

abode 

meet 

met 

met 

awake 

awoke  R. 

awoke  R. 

shine 

shone 

shone 

behold 

beheld 

beheld 

shoot 

shot 

shot 

bind 

bound 

bound 

sit 

sat 

sat 

bleed 

.bled 

bled 

slide 

slid 

slid 

breed 
cling 
dig 
feed 

bred 
clung 
dug 
fed 

bred 
clung 
dug 
fed 

sling 
slink 
spin 
stand 

slung 
slunk 
spun 
stood 

slung 
slunk 
spun 
stood 

find 

found 

found 

stick 

stuck 

stuck 

fling 
get 
grind 
hang 
have 

flung 
got 
ground 
hung  R. 
had 

flung 
got 
ground 
hung  R. 
had 

sting 
strike 
string 
swing 
win 

stung 
struck 
strung 
swung 
won 

stung 
struck 
strung 
swung 
won 

hold 

held 

held 

wind 

wound 

wound 

lead 

led 

led 

wring 

wrung 

wrung 

CLASS  V.   Verbs  which  form  their 

third  root 

from  their 

first  or 

second  by  adding  n  or  en. 

am,  be 
arise 

was 
arose 

been 
arisen 

grow 
know 

grew 
knew 

grown 
known 

beat 
blow 

beat 
blew 

beaten 
blown 

lie 
ride 

lay 
rode 

lain 
ridden 

break 

broke 

broken 

rise 

rose 

risen 

choose 

chose 

chosen 

see 

saw 

seen 

cleave 

clove 

cloven 

shake 

shook 

shaken 

draw 
drive 

drew 
drove 

drawn 
driven 

slay 
smite 

slew 
smote 

slain 
smitten 

eat 
fall 

ate 
fell 

eaten 
fallen 

speak 
steal 

spoke 
stole 

spoken 
stolen 

forsake 

forsook 

forsaken 

stride 

strode 

stridden 

freeze 

froze  • 

frozen 

strive 

strove 

striven 

PUNCTUATION. 


121 


swear  swore        sworn 

take  took          taken 

tear  tore  torn 

thrive  throve  R.  thriven  R. 


throw  threw 

wear  wore 

weave  wove 

write  wrote 


Class  VI.    Other  irregular  verbs. 


thrown 
worn 
woven 
written 


begin 

began 

begun 

have 

had 

had 

come 
do 

came 
did 

come 
done 

ring 
run 

rang 
ran 

rung 
run 

drink 

drank 

drunk 

shrink 

shrank 

shrunk 

% 

forbear 

flew 
forbore 

flown 
forborne 

sing 
stave 

sang 
stove 

sung 
stoved 

go 

went 

gone 

stink 

stank 

stunk 

Lesson  143. 

PUNCTUATION.  — WORDS   IN  THE   SAME 
CONSTRUCTION. 

Words  repeated  for  the  sake  of  emphasis  should  be  separated  from 
the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  commas ;  as,  — 

Come,  come,  be  still. 

If  one  of  two  or  more  words  or  phrases  which  are  in  the  same 
construction  has  a  modifier  that  belongs  to  itself  only,  such  words 
or  phrases  should  be  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by 
commas ;  as,  — 

The  interest  of  the  state,  and  the  interest  of  their  own 
ambition,  impelled  them  to  unite. 

Punctuate  these  sentences :  — 

I  love  not  the  woman  that  is  vain  of  her  beauty  nor  the  man 
that  prides  himself  on  his  wisdom. 

An  absolute  monarchy  is  a  government  in  which  the  sover- 


122  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

eign  rules  according  to  his  own  will  and  has  almost  entire 
power  over  the  lives  and  property  of  his  subjects. 

If  at  first  you  don't  succeed  try  try  again. 

Philip  the  Second  was  a  small  meagre  man  much  below  the 
medium  height  with  thin  legs  a  narrow  chest  and  the  shrink- 
ing timid  air  of  an  habitual  invalid. 


Lesson  144. 

DESCRIPTION. 

Following  the  outline  given  for  the  apple  on  page  117, 

describe :  — 

The  peach.  The  pear. 


Lesson  145. 
BILLS. 

A  bill  is  a  written  account  of  goods  sold  and  delivered 
or  of  services  rendered. 
Every  bill  contains :  — 

1.  The  date. 

2.  The  name  of  the  debtor. 

3.  The  name  of  the  creditor. 

4.  List   of  articles   purchased,   or    statement    of    services 
rendered. 

5.  Amounts  and  prices. 

6.  The  date  when  each  article  was  purchased  or  the  service 
rendered,  if  the  bill  is  for  articles  bought  or  service  rendered 
at  various  times. 


MANNERS   AT  A    PARTY. 


123 


A  bill  is  made  out  by  the  creditor,  and  presented  to  the 
debtor  for  payment.  When  the  debtor  pays  the  amount, 
the  creditor  writes  his  name  at  the  foot  of  the  bill  under 
the  words  "  Received  Payment." 

Copy  the  following  bill  for  services  rendered  and  ma- 
terial furnished  at  various  times :  -*- 

ANN  ARBOR,  MICH.,  April  30,  ?74. 
Miss  ALICE  JOHNSON, 

To  C.  S.  STANLEY,  Dr. 


Jan.    18 

To  1  Metronome 

$6 

"       27 

"       Sheet  Music 

3 

50 

March  8 

u              «           (t 

2 

15 

April  30 

"   1  Term  Lessons 

20 

$31 

65 

Received  Payment, 

C.  S.  STANLEY. 


Lesson  146. 

.  MANNERS   AT  A   PARTY. 

Think  what  answers  you  would  give  to  the  following 
questions,  and  then  write  an  article  on  Conduct  at  a 
Party. 

When  you  receive  an  invitation  to  a  party,  what  must  be 
done  without  delay  ? 

After  you  have  reached  your  friend's  home  and  have  taken 
off  your  wraps,  whom  must  you  first  greet  ? 

How  can  you  appear  at  ease  ? 

What  must  you  avoid  thinking  about  ? 


124  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

What  can  you  say  about  sitting  on  the  edge  or  corner  of  a 
chair,  tilting  it  backward  or  forward,  rocking,  or  drumming 
upon  chair  or  table  ? 

What  can  you  say  about  whispering,  interrupting  others 
who  are  speaking,  correcting  mistakes  which  others  may  make, 
loud  laughing  or  talking  ? 

How  should  you  treat  any  one  whom  you  may  meet  at  such 
a  gathering  ? 

How  is  an  introduction  properly  given  ? 

How  should  you  treat  one  who  is  talking  to  you,  even 
though  you  are  not  interested  in  what  he  says  ? 

How  can  you  aid  your  hostess  in  making  the  evening 
pleasant  ? 

What  should  you  do  when  asked  to  sing,  play,  or  do  any- 
thing for  the  entertainment  of  the  company  ? 

What  should  you  say  to  your  hostess  when  you  bid  her 
good-night  ? 


Lesson  147. 

AMBIGUITY. 

A  sentence  well  written  will  express  exactly  the 
writer's  thought. 

A  sentence  that  can  have  two  or  more  meanings  is 
called  an  ambiguous  sentence.  Such  sentences  should  be 
carefully  avoided. 

I  cannot  do  one  of  these  examples. 

This  sentence  is  ambiguous.  It  may  mean,  "  I  cannot 
do  any  one  of  these  examples  "  or  "  There  is  one  of  these 
examples  which  I  cannot  do." 

Show  what   two  meanings   each   sentence    below  may 


SYNONYMS.  125 

have,  and  write  the  sentence  in  a  form  capable  of  only 
one  meaning. 

Since  you  have  come,  I  have  decided  not  to  go. 

The  young  man  immediately  remarked  that  she  had  a 
pleasant  voice. 

I  shall  grant  what  you  ask  readily. 

We  also  get  salt  from  the  ocean,  which  is  very  useful  to 
man. 

A  tear  is  due,  at  least,  to  the  fallen  brave. 

When  Mr.  Henry  came  in,  the  house  was  crowded. 

My  brother  has  done  more  for  me  than  my  sister. 

Were  you  in  the  store  before  to-day  ? 

I  can  testify  that  I  saw  everything  that  he  did  on  that  day. 

The  child,  being  sent  to  apologize  for  her  rude  remark,  said, 
"  Miss  Mollet,  I  said  you  were  homely,  and  I  am  sorry  for  it." 


Lesson  148. 

SYNONYMS. 

Use  each  of  these  words  in  a  sentence  in  which  the 
other  synonym  could  not  so  properly  be  placed :  — 

balance  excuse  artisan 

artist  remainder  apology 

Lesson  149. 

REDUNDANT  AND   DEFECTIVE   VERBS. 

Redundant  verbs  are  those  having  two  forms  for  the  same 
principal  part.  Irregular  verbs  which  have  also  regular 
forms,  and  those  of  the  following  list,  are  redundant :  — 


126  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

bear  bore  borne,  born   • 

bid  bade,  bid  bidden,  bid 

bite  bit  bitten,  bit 

chide  chid  chidden,  chid 

crow  crew,  crowed  crowed 

dare  durst,  dared  dared 

drink  drank  drunk,  drunken 

sink  sank  sunk,  sunken 

spring  sprang,  sprung  sprung 

tread  trod  trod,  trodden 

wake  woke,  waked  waked 

Defective  verbs  are  those  which  lack  some  of  the  modes 
and  tenses.     They  are  the  following :  - 

PRESENT  TENSE.  PAST  TENSE. 

beware 

can  could 

may  might 

must 
ought 

shall  should 

will  would 

wot  wist 

quoth 

Give  the  principal  parts  of  these  verbs  :  — 
See,  go,  run,   strike,  sleep,   say,   sell,    sit,  sing,  send,   set, 
drive,  stand,  find,  show,  string,  sew,  hold,  hang,  fly,  hide,  write, 
hurt,  think,  speak,  ride,  leave,  bring,  eat,  rise,  lie,  lay. 


Lesson  150. 

DESCRIPTION. 
Describe  :  — 

The  strawberry.  The  currant. 


POSITION   OF  NOUN  MODIFIERS.  127 

Lesson  151. 

STORY  TO   BE   IMITATED. 

THE  DIVISION  OF  A  NUT. 

Two  boys  found  a  nut  and  both  wanted  it.  Each  grew 
quite  angry  because  he  could  not  have  it  all  to  himself.  When 
a  man  came  by,  they  gave  him  the  nut  to  divide  for  them.  He 
gave  each  boy  half  of  the  shell  and  kept  the  kernel  himself. 

Tell  a  similar  story  about  two  chickens,  a  worm,  and  an 
old  hen. 

Tell  such  a  story  about  two  cats,  a  monkey,  and  a  piece 
of  cheese. 

Lesson  152. 

POSITION   OF   NOUN   MODIFIERS. 

1.  Moses'  writings  are  revered  by  the  Jews. 

2.  The  writings  of  Moses  are  found  in  the  Old  Testament. 

3.  Moses,  the  lawgiver,  led  the  Jews  from  Egypt. 

Judging  from  the  sentences  above,  where  is  a  noun  in 
the  possessive  case  placed  ?  A  phrase  modifying  a  noun  ? 
An  explanatory  noun  ? 

Which  expression  is  better,  a  fine  gold  pen  or  a  gold  fine 
pen?  A  marble  elegant  mantel  or  an  elegant  marble 
mantel?  Where  should  an  adjective  denoting  the  mate- 
rial out  of  which  something  is  made  be  placed  when  used 
with  other  adjectives  to  modify  a  noun  ? 

Which  of  the  following  expressions  do  you  prefer :  — 


128  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

An  old  colored  man  or  a  colored  old  man  ? 
A  nice  silk  new  hat,  a  new  silk  nice  hat,  or  a  nice  new  silk 
hat? 

Adjectives  that  represent  the  most  important  qualities  are 
placed  nearest  the  noun.  When  the  signification  does  not 
determine  the  place  of  the  adjectives,  put  the  shortest  first 
and  the  longest  nearest  the  noun. 

Use  five  or  six  adjectives  with  each  of  the  following 
nouns,  arranging  the  adjectives  in  the  proper  order :  — 

man  horse  island  house 

kite  painting  poem  climate 

fountain         example  lesson  view 


Lesson  153. 

REPRODUCTION.  —ATTENTION. 

If  I  were  a  hoy  again  I  would  school  myself  into  a  habit  of 
attention  oftener.  I  would  let  nothing  come  between  me  and 
the  subject  in  .hand.  I  would  remember  that  an  expert  on  the 
ice  never  tries  to  skate  in  two  directions  at  once.  One  of  our 
great  mistakes,  while  we  are  young,  is  that  we  do  not  attend 
strictly  to  what  we  are  about  just  then,  at  that  particular 
moment ;  we  do  not  bend  our  energies  closely  enough  to  what 
we  are  doing  or  learning ;  we  wander  into  a  half  interest  only, 
and  so  never  acquire  fully  what  is  needful  for  us  to  become 
master  of.  The  practice  of  being  habitually  attentive  is  one 
easily  obtained,  if  we  begin  early  enough.  I  often  hear 
grown-up  people  say,  "I  couldn't  fix  my  attention  on  the 
sermon,  or  book,  although  I  wished  to  do  so,"  and  the  reason 
is  that  a  habit  of  attention  was  never  formed  in  youth. 


NUMBER    OF  VERBS.  129 

Let  me  tell  you  a  sad  instance  of  neglected  power  of  con- 
centration. A  friend  asked  me  once  to  lend  him  an  interest- 
ing book,  something  that  would  enchain  his  attention,  for  he 
said  he  was  losing  the  power  to  read.  After  a  few  days  he 
brought  back  the  volume,  saying  it  was  no  doubt  a  work  of 
great  value  and  beauty,  but  that  the  will  to  enjoy  it  had  gone 
from  him  forever,  for  other  matters  would  intrude  themselves 
on  the  page  he  was  trying  to  understand  and  enjoy,  and  rows 
of  figures  constantly  marshalled  themselves  on  the  margin, 
adding  themselves  up  at  the  bottom  of  the  leaf. 

JAMES  T.  FIELDS. 


Lesson  154. 

NUMBER   OF   VERBS. 

When  the  subject  of  a  verb  is  a  noun  or  pronoun  refer- 
ring to  a  part,  as  one  half,  or  when  it  is  a  collective 
noun,  it  is  often  difficult  to, tell  whether  the  verb  should 
be  singular  or  plural. 

If  the  reference  is  to  the  whole  as  one  body,  then  the 
verb  should  be  in  the  singular  number ;  as,  — 

The  committee  has  a  meeting  at  eight  o'clock. 

But  if  the  reference  is  to  the  persons  or  separate  things 
represented  by  the  subject,  the  verb  should  be  in  the  plural 
number ;  as,  — 

The  committee  are  men  above  suspicion. 

When  the  subject  consists  of  two  or  more  nouns  or  pro- 
nouns connected  by  the  conjunction  and,  the  verb  should 
be  in  the  plural  number,  unless  the  several  nouns  or 
pronouns  refer  to  the  same  person  or  thing ;  as,  — 


130  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

Politeness  and  learning  make  a  gentleman. 
Our  pastor  and  friend  has  gone  to  Europe. 

The  parts  of  a  compound  subject  are  considered  as  taken 
separately  when  they  are  connected  by  or,  nor,  and  not,  but 
not,  if  not,  as  well  as  ;  also  when  each  part  is  preceded  by 
each,  every,  or  no. 

If  all  the  parts  of  a  compound  subject  are  taken  sepa- 
rately, the  verb  should  agree  with  the  subject  nearest  to  it. 

When  the  parts  of  a  compound  subject  are  connected 
by  and  not,  but  not,  if  not,  as  well  as,  the  verb  agrees  with 
the  subject  mentioned  first  and  is  understood  with  the 
other. 

Give  the  reason  for  the  number  of  each  of  the  verbs  in 
these  sentences :  — 

The  fleet  were  badly  shattered. 

The  fleet  was  victorious. 

The  committee  has  made  its  report. 

The  committee  were  divided  in  their  opinions. 

Most  of  the  work  is  done. 

Most  of  the  examples  have  been  solved. 

Two-thirds  of  his  money  is  lost. 

Two-thirds  of  the  voters  were  absent  from  the  polls. 

All  of  them  were  notified  to  be  present. 

All  of  it  is  yours. 

A  portion  of  our  cavalry  were  dismounted. 

A  portion  of  the  wheat  was  damaged. 

One-half  of  the  company  were  women. 

One-half  of  the  property  was  wasted. 

He  and  I  are  to  go. 

He,  and  not  I,  is  to  go. 

The  saint,  the  husband,  and  the  father  prays  [one  person]. 

Mercury,  Mars,  and  Venus  are  the  nearest  planets. 


DIRECT  AND  INDIRECT  QUOTATION.  131 

Mary  as  well  as  her  brothers  is  here. 
Are  your  brother  and  sister  at  home  ? 
Is  your  brother  or  your  sister  at  home  ? 
He  and  his  brother  are  here. 
Either  he  or  his  brother  is  here. 

Every  man  and  every  woman  is  interested  in  the  tariff. 
Either  you  or  I  am  mistaken.     [A  form  so  awkward  should 
be  avoided.     Can  you  improve  this  sentence?] 


Lesson  155. 

DIRECT   AND   INDIRECT  QUOTATION. 

Direct  quotation  reports  or  quotes  the  exact  form  of 
words  in  which  another  expressed  a  thought.  Indirect 
quotation  reports  the  thought  of  another,  but  changes 
somewhat  the  form  of  words  in  which  he  expressed  it. 

He  said,  " /  will  do  it"  is  direct.  He  said  that  he 
would  do  it,  is  indirect. 

Change  the  following  sentences,  the  direct  to  the  indi- 
rect form,  and  the  indirect  to  the  direct :  - 

"  Do  you  know  when  quotation  marks  should  be  used  ? " 
was  the  first  question  asked  of  Dorothy. 

Our  teacher  told  us  to  put  our  books  away,  and  she  would 
read  us  one  of  Longfellow's  poems. 

The  direction  he  gave  us  was,  "  Be  sure  that  your  penman- 
ship is  neat  and  readable." 

"  My  style  was  not  formed  without  great  care,  and  earnest 
study  of  the  best  authors,"  said  Webster. 

Mr.  Lincoln  once  wrote  to  one  of  his  clients  that  he  did  not 
think  there  was  any  use  in  carrying  on  a  lawsuit ;  for  he 


132  LESSONS   IN   LANGUAGE. 

thought  that  his  client  was  not  only  not  sure  of  gaining  it,  but 
was  even  quite  sure  of  losing  it,  and  the  sooner  the  suit  came 
to  an  end  the  better. 

"  You  have  long  been  my  friend/7  said  she ;  "  henceforth 
we  are  strangers," 

"Is  the  route  practicable?"  inquired  Bonaparte.  "It  is 
barely  possible  to  pass,"*  replied  the  first  engineer.  "Then 
forward,"  rejoined  the  consul. 

"  I  chanced  to  be  at  West  Point,"  said  Emerson,  "  and,  after 
attending  the  examination  in  scientific  classes,  I  went  into  the 
barracks.  Everything  was  in  perfect  order.  I  asked  the  first 
cadet,  '  Who  makes  your  bed  ? '  '  I  do.7 .  '  Who  fetches  your 
water  ?  '  <  I  do.7  <  Who  blacks  your  shoes  ? 7  <  I  do.7 " 

When  James  VI.  demanded  of  Thomas  Hamilton  the  secret 
whereby  he  had  amassed  his  enormous  wealth,  the  earl  replied, 
"  I  never  defer  till  to-morrow  what  can  be  done  to-day,  and 
never  trust  to  another  what  I  can  do  myself." 

"  Better  a  small  bush,77  say  the  Scotch,  "  than  no  shelter.77 


Lesson  156. 

DESCRIPTION. 
Describe :  — 

The  orange.  The  pineapple.  The  banana. 

Lesson  157. 

POSITION    OF   MODIFIERS. 

Modifiers  should  be  placed  as  near  as  possible  to  tjie  words 
which  they  modify. 


PUNCTUATION. —  THE  DASH.  133 

A  modifier  should  not  be  placed  between  two  words, 
phrases,  or  clauses  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  it  doubtful 
which  of  them  it  modifies. 

Tell  him,  if  he  is  there,  we  shall  not  come. 

This  sentence  may  mean  that  if  he  is  there  you  may  tell 
him  we  shall  not  come;  or,  that  you  may  tell  him  we 
shall  not  come  in  case  he  is  there. 

Combine  properly  into  sentences  the  following :  — 

1.  A  man  was  killed.     With  a  long  beard.     By  a  rifle  ball. 

2.  Mary  found  a  dime.     Assorting  rags. 

3.  I  saw  a  man.     Digging  a  ditch.     With  a  Roman  nose. 

4.  A   lady  called.     From  Australia.     To  pay  her  compli- 
ments. 

5.  A  pearl  was  found.     By  a  sailor.     In  a  shell. 

6.  The  Moor  smothered  the  unhappy  Desdemona.     Seizing 
a  bolster.     Upon  this.     Full  of  rage  and  jealousy. 

7.  To  be  sold,  a  grand  piano.     About  to  travel.     The  prop- 
erty of  a  lady.     In  a  walnut  case.     With  carved  legs. 


Lesson  158. 

PUNCTUATION.— THE    DASH. 

The  dash  may  be  used  to  denote  an  abrupt  change  of 
thought ;  as,  — 

He  sometimes  counsel  takes,  —  and  sometimes  snuff. 

The  dash  may  be  used  between  letters  or  figures  to  denote 
that  the  intervening  letters  or  figures  are  to  be  included ; 
as,  — 

Grant  was  President  1869-1876. 


134  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

A  dash  is  often  put  after  a  comma  or  colon  at  the  end  of 
a  paragraph  or  in  a  broken  line  ;  as,  — 

The  following  is  a  portion  of  President  Lincoln's  second 
Inaugural  Address :  — 

Neither  party  expected  for  the  war  the  magnitude  or  the 
duration  which  it  has  already  attained. 

A  side  head  is  set  off'  ly  a  period  and  a  dash ;  as,  — 

NOTE. — The  dash  is  sometimes  used  in  place  of  the 
parenthesis. 


Lesson  159 

RECEIPTS. 

A  receipt  is  the  written  acknowledgment  which  the 
person  receiving  money  or  goods  gives  to  the  one  from 
whom  the  money  or  goods  are  received. 

A  receipt  may  be  for  full  or  for  part  payment  of  a  debt, 
or  it  may  be  given  for  valuables  intrusted  to  another. 
The  purpose  for  which  the  receipt  is  given  should  in  every 
case  be  stated. 

Copy  the. following  receipts:  — 

A  RECEIPT  ON   ACCOUNT. 

Received    of   La/uH&n&e,    5.    UMvile, 

Qs&v-£m'Vu—/tiA>-£'   Dollars  on   M&OWHJL. 

R 


INFINITIVES   AND   PARTICIPLES.  135 

A  RECEIPT  IN  FULL. 


Received  of  TAJ^ 

Dollars  vn  lull  o-    ail  cle/vru^'ncU,  to  dat&. 


RECEIPT  TO  APPLY  TO  A   PARTICULAR  PURPOSE. 

* 
Received  of  &tiasit&q,  c4. 


and        Dollars  to  dl      to- 


What  is  written  in  the  upper  right-hand  corner  of  a 
receipt?  What  in  the  upper  left-hand  corner?  In  what 
way  is  the  amount  expressed  here?  What  does  the  body 
of  the  receipt  state?  How  are  the  dollars  expressed  in 
the  body  of  the  receipt?  How  are  the  cents  expressed 
here  ?  Who  signs  the  receipt  ?  In  whose  favor  is  the 
receipt  made  ?  '  Who  keeps  the  receipt  ? 


Lesson  16O 

INFINITIVES    AND    PARTICIPLES. 

1.  The  boys  chop  wood. 

2.  They  like  to  chop  with  a  sharp  axe. 

3.  Chopping  wood  is  good  exercise. 


136  LESSONS   IN    LANGUAGE. 

What  is  the  verb  in  the  first  sentence  ?  What  words  in 
the  second  and  third  sentences  denote  the  same  kind  of 
action  that  the  verb  in  the  first  sentence  denotes? 

By  what  change  does  the  word  chop  become  to  chop? 
By  what  change  does  the  word  chop  become  chopping  ? 

What  is  the  construction  of  chop  in  the  first  sentence  ? 
Of  to  chop  in  the  second  sentence  ?  Of  chopping  in  the 
third  sentence  ? 

In  the  second  sentence  we  have  a  phrase  derived  from  a 
verb  by  prefixing  to,  having  still  the  general  meaning  of 
the  verb  from  which  it  is  formed,  but  not  used  as  a  verb. 
We  call  such  a  phrase  an  infinitive. 

In  the  third  sentence  we  have  a  word  derived  from  a 
verb  by  the  addition  of  ing,  having  the  general  meaning 
of  the  verb  from  which  it  is  formed,  but  not  used  as  a  verb. 
We  call  such  a  word  a  participle. 

Infinitives  and  participles  are  forms  of  verbs  which  have  the 
construction  of  some  other  part  of  speech. 

They  are  derived  from  verbs,  and  express  in  a  general 
way  the  same  idea  as  the  verb  from  which  they  come,  but 
they  do  not  directly  assert  this  idea  of  any  subject.  They 
may  have  the  modifiers  and  the  complements  which  the 
verbs  from  which  they  are  derived  might  have,  and  at  the 
same  time  they  perform  the  office  of  some  other  part  of 
speech. 

Lesson  161 

STORY   TO    BE    IMITATED. 
THE  WOODPECKER  AND  THE  DOVE. 

A  woodpecker  and  a  dove  had  just  returned  from  a  visit  to 
a  peacock.  The  woodpecker  said  to  his  companion  :  "  I  don't 


AMllHiUOUS    USE   OF  PERSONAL    PRONOUNS.      137 

see  why  the  peacock  should  be  so  proud.  He  has  neither  fine 
feet  nor  a  tine  voice."  The  dove  answered,  "  I  confess  I  did 
not  pay  any  attention  to  them  ;  for  I  was  occupied  in  admiring 
his  handsome  head,  the  beauty  of  his  feathers,  and  his  majestic 
tail." 

Imitate   this   story  by  writing  the  conTersation  of  two 
girls  who  have  returned  from  a  visit  to  a  friend. 


Lesson  162. 

AMBIGUOUS    USE   OF    PERSONAL   PRONOUNS. 

A  sentence  is  often  obscured  by  the  wrong  use  of  pro- 
nouns. Every  pronoun  should  readily  suggest  its  antece- 
dent, and  the  same  pronoun  should  not  be  used  in  the  same 
sentence  to  refer  to  different  objects.  It  is  well  for  a 
young  writer  to  look  over  his  pages  and  be  sure  that  each 
pronoun  is  rightly  used. 

In  the  following  sentences  the  personal  pronouns  are 
wrongly  used.  Write  the  sentences  correctly. 

He  told  him  that  he  would  never  abandon  his  friends. 

An  eagle  is  so  strong  that  it  can  seize  a  lamb  in  its  claws, 
and  it  cannot  get  away. 

Instead  of  engines,  horses  are  used  in  some  cities  to  haul 
freight  cars  through  the  streets  because  they  make  too  much 
noise. 

The  furnace  is  filled  with  iron-ore,  and  it  is  melted  by  heat- 
ing it  with  coal,  and  then  the  iron  can  be  taken  from  it. 

A  pig  may  have  a  little  sense,  but  when  it  is  being  driven 
into  a  pen  it  seems  very  small. 

He  told  his  friend  that  if  he  did  not  feel  better  in  half  an 
hour,  he  thought  he  had  better  call  a  cab. 


138  LESSONS    IN    LANGUAGE. 

There  are  so  many  advantages  in  speaking  one's  own  lan- 
guage well,  and  in  being  a  master  of  it,  that,  let  a  man's  call- 
ing be  what  it  will,  it  cannot  but  be  worth  one's  taking  some 
pains  in  it. 

He  told  the  coachman  that  he  would  be  the  death  of  him  if 
he  did  not  take  care  what  he  was  about  and  mind  what  he  said. 

I  felt  that  I  must  go,  and  I  really  think  that  it  would  have 
been  right. 

His  sad  fate  is  a  warning  to  all  against  the  folly  of  taking 
the  first  glass ;  many  young  men  are  in  need  of  it. 

A  steamer  is  two  or  three  days  in  going  from  one  end  of 
Lake  Superior  to  the  other,  and  when  in  the  center  of  it,  it  is 
out  of  sight  of  land,  so  large  is  it. 

The  yellow  fever  is  a  disease  that  is  much  dreaded ;  wealth 
is  no  barrier  to  it,  and  those  that  have  it  at  once  leave  a  city 
as  soon  as  it  has  made  its  appearance. 


Lesson  163 

RECEIPTS. 

Jane  E.  Hall  paid  Ida  R.  Martin  twenty-six  dollars  and 
fifty  cents  as  part  payment  of  a  debt.     Make  the  receipt. 
Write  a  receipt  for  three  months'  rent. 
Write  a  receipt  in  full. 


Lesson  164. 

DESCRIPTION. 

OUTLINE. 

1.  To  what  class  of  plants  does  it  belong? 

2.  Where  does  it  grow  ? 


ESSAY.  —  RIVERS.  139 

3.  What  parts  has  it  ? 

4.  When  does  it  blossom  and  when  does  its  fruit  ripen  ? 

5.  How  is  it  propagated  ? 

6.  Of  what  use  is  it  ? 

THE  PEAR  TREE. 

The  pear  tree  is  a  fruit  tree.  It  grows  in  the  milder  portions 
of  the  temperate  zone.  It  has  a  strong  root,  a  thick  trunk, 
many  branches  with  notched  leaves,  white  blossoms,  and  oblong 
fruit.  It  blossoms  in  spring ;  the  fruit  ripens  in  summer.  A 
pear  tree  is  propagated  by  seeds,  and  by  shoots  from  the  roots. 
From  it  we  obtain  delicious  fruit  and  good  wood  for  fuel  and 
other  purposes. 

Compare  the  outline  above  with  the  description  which 
follows  it.  Write  another  outline,  making  changes  in 
the  one  given,  and  adding  anything  interesting  that  you 
know  about  the  pear  tree.  From  the  new  outline  write  a 
fuller  description  of  the  pear  tree. 


Lesson  165. 

ESSAY.— RIVERS. 

Write  a  short  essay  upon  this  subject  from  these  hints :  — 

SOURCE.  —  Much  of  rainfall  returns  to  sea  by  rivers  —  source 
in  spring  or  glacier. 

COURSE.  —  At  first  small  stream  —  others  join  —  river  formed 
—  often  miles  broad  at  mouth  — •  seldom  straight  in  course  — 
if  land  level,  slow  and  navigable  —  if  hilly,  rapid  —  river  basin. 

EFFECTS.  —  All  rivers  bring  down  mud  —  sometimes  choke 
up  mouths  —  delta  formed  as  in  Nile,  Ganges.  Rivers  very 
useful  —  drain  off  water  —  if  navigable,  for  communication 
with  interior  —  render  soil  fertile  —  turn  machinery. 


140 


LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 


Lesson  166. 

CONJUGATION. 

The  regular  arrangement  of  the  forms  of  a  verb  is  called  conjuga- 
tion. 

Verbs  used  to  assist  in  forming  some  of  the  modes  and  tenses 
of  other  verbs  are  called  auxiliary  verbs.  The  auxiliary  verbs  are 
do,  be,  have,  shall,  will,  may,  can,  must. 

Do,  be,  and  have  are  also  used  as  principal  verbs. 

CONJUGATION  OF  THE  AUXILIARIES  SHALL  AND  WILL. 

As  auxiliaries,  shall  and  will  are  usually  united  in  the 
same  tense,  as  follows :  — 

Present  Tense. 

PLURAL. 

We  shall 
You  will 
They  will 
Past  Tense. 

PLURAL. 

We  should 
You  would 
They  would 

The  forms  with  thou  will  be  given  throughout  the  tables 
of  conjugation  as  those  of  the  second  person  singular, 
though  these  are  poetic  forms  only.  The  common  form 
of  the  second  person  in  the  singular  is  the  same  as  in  the 
plural. 

In  the  place  of  he  may  be  inserted  any  singular  subject 
of  the  third  person,  and  in  the  place  of  they  any  plural 
subject  of  the  third  person.  In  the  second  person  plural 
ye  may  be  used  instead  of  you. 


SINGULAR. 

1.  I  shall 

2.  Thou  wilt 

3.  He  will 


SINGULAR. 

1.  I  should 

2.  Thou  wouldst 

3.  He  would 


POSITION   OF  ADVERBS.  141 

Lesson  167. 

POSITION   OF  ADVERBS. 

Adverbs  and  adverbial  phrases  should  be  placed  as  near 
as  possible  to  the  ivords  ivhich  they  modify. 

Adverbs  may  occupy  a  greater  variety  of  positions  in  a 
sentence  than  any  other  element.  Much  of  the  clearness 
of  sentences  depends  upon  the  position  of  the  adverbial 
elements. 

An  adverb  should  generally  be  placed  before  the  adjec- 
tive, adverb,  or  phrase  which  it  modifies.  It  may  come 
before  or  after  the  verb  which  it  modifies,  or  after  the 
auxiliary  if  the  verb  is  compound. 

Explain  the  use  of  only  in  each  of  the  following  sen- 
tences, and  tell  the  exact  meaning  of  each  sentence:  — 

The  man  has  lost  his  only  friend. 
The  man  has  only  lost  his  friend. 
Only  the  man  has  lost  his  friend. 
The  man  has  lost  only  his  friend. 

Place  in  as.  many  suitable  positions  as  you  can  the 
word  which  you  are  directed  to  insert  in  each  of  the  fol- 
lowing sentences,  and  tell  the  differences  in  the  meanings 
of  the  sentences  you  have  thus  formed :  — 

1.  One  species  of  bread  of  coarse  quality  was  allowed  to  be 
baked.     Insert  only. 

2.  This  blunder  is  said  to  have  been  made.     Insert  actually. 

3.  I  have  done  six  problems.     Insert  only. 

4.  He  left  the  room,  repeating  his  lesson.    Insert  very  slowly 
[What  difficulty  comes  from  putting  very  slowly  after  room  ?] 


142  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

5.  I  bought  the  horse,  and  not  the  buggy.     Insert  only. 

6.  If  you  have  learned  at  school  to  waste  time  idly,  you 
may  stay  at  home.     Insert  only. 

7.  The  farmers  sell  their  produce  to  the  merchants.    Insert 
generally. 

8.  The  word  couple  can  be  properly  applied  to  objects  in 
connection.     Insert  only. 

9.  I  was  sorry  to  see  so  many  present,  for   I   knew   the 
lecturer  had  disappointed  them.     Insert  only. 

10.  I  am  sure  you  will  like  this  book  as  well  as  the  last  one 
that  you  read.     Insert  at  least. 

11.  You  have   learned   part   of  the   lesson  assigned  you. 
Insert  only. 

12.  An  insect  looks  as  though  its  body  were  cut  into  three 
parts.     Insert  almost. 

13.  The  praise  was  bestowed  upon  the  workmanship,  but 
upon  the  material.     Insert  not. 

14.  Drunkenness  was  found  to  be  the  cause  of  the  insanity 
in  fewer  than  eight  out  of  the  eleven  cases.     Insert  not. 

15.  The  rendition  of  the  Creation  was  most  excellent.   Insert 
by  the  Philharmonic  Society. 

16.  The  grocers  and  the  confectioners  conspired  together  to 
adulterate  the  articles  in  which  they  dealt.     Insert  in  a  thou- 
sand ways. 

17.  There  were  many  buildings  left  which  he  had  begun, 
and  which  no  one  expects  to  see  completed.      Insert  in  an 
unfinished  state. 

18.  Nothing  was  ever  undertaken  by  this  man.     Insert  that 
was  not  perfectly  honorable. 

19.  A  learned  man  when  he  is  not  on  his  guard  would  make 
the  same  mistake.     Insert  even. 

20.  I   heard   that   you   had   gone   to   Europe.     Insert  two 
months  ago. 


CHECKS.  143 

Lesson  168. 

CHECKS. 

A  check  is  an  order  for  money,  addressed  to  a  bank  by 
a  person  having  money  therein  on  deposit.  The  amount 
of  the  order  must  be  written  both  in  figures  and  in  words. 

A  check  is  negotiable  when  it  may  be  transferred  to 
another  person.  An  indorsement  of  a  check  is  that  which 
is  written  on  the  back  of  it  to  make  it  negotiable. 

A  check  may  be  non-negotiable,  negotiable  without 
indorsement,  or  negotiable  by  indorsement. 

A  check  made  payable  to  one  person  only  cannot  be 
transferred  to  another,  and  hence  is  non-negotiable. 

NON-NEGOTIABLE  CHECK. 

Fall  River,  WOA,.  7,  1883. 

Second  National  Bank.  No.  /83tf  . 

Pay  to—  -~/i:owa,'wL  (owLi&o-'Yi,—  ^  /6tftf°°/loo, 

/  /          /  7")    77 

7\s'u/yi/cL>\/&o(/  "^  ^  JLfoiiars. 

/?. 


A  check  made  payable  to  bearer  is  negotiable  without 
indorsement. 

Fall  River,  7tta,<b.  7;  1883. 
Second  National  Bank.  No.  /8V-2. 

T^nti   tr\ 

-L  ay  IO  ' 


144  LESSONS  IN   LANGUAGE. 

A  check  made  payable  to  a  certain  person  or  his  order 
is  negotiable  by  indorsement. 

Louisville,  Ky.,  &&&.  /2,  188!. 
Louisville  National  Bank.  No. 

Pay  to  the  order  of  ^tefid&n 


te  °° 


/  too  *  ~  Dollars. 


Copy  the  checks  in  this  lesson.  To  whom  is  each  check 
payable  ?  How  does  the  wording  of  each  check  differ  from 
that  of  the  others  ?  Of  what  use  is  the  number  at  the  right  ? 


Lesson  169. 

MANNERS  WHEN   VISITING. 

Write  a  set  of  directions  as  to  what  one  should  do  and 
should  not  do  when  a  guest  at  a  friend's  home. 


Lesson  170. 

PARAPHRASE. 

A  paraphrase  is  a  statement  in  different  form  of  the 
thought  contained  in  a  given  passage. 

Paraphrasing  gives  to  the  student  of  English  much  of 
the  advantage  gained  by  the  student  of  foreign  languages. 
His  power  of  discrimination  is  exercised  and  his  taste 
improved.  He  enters  as  otherwise  he  hardly  would  into 


PARAPHRASE.  145 

the  thought  of  the  writer,  and  appreciates  the  beauties  of 
his  style. 

To  make  a  paraphrase,  the  pupil  should  read  the  passage 
over  very  carefully,  giving  attention  to  the  thought  rather 
than  to  the  language. 

In  paraphrasing,  the  pupil  may  — 

1.  Restore  the  natural  order  of  the  words. 

2.  Select  simpler  words  and  more  expressive  language. 

3.  Break  up  long  and  involved  sentences  into  shorter  ones. 

4.  Combine  disconnected  sentences  by  the  use  of  suitable 
connectives. 

5.  Abridge  clauses  to  words  and  phrases. 

6.  Expand  words  and  phrases  into  clauses. 

7.  Change  active  verbs  to  passive,  and  passive  to  active. 

8.  Employ  introductory  words  to  give  variety  to  the  order 
of  the  sentences. 

Compare  this  stanza  of  William  Cullen  Bryant's  with 
the  paraphrase  which  follows  it.  In  the  paraphrase,  what 
changes  have  been  made  from  the  stanza  ? 

The  melancholy  days  are  come,  the  saddest  of  the  year, 

Of  wailing  winds,  and  naked  woods,  and  meadows  brown  and 

sear. 

Heaped  in  the  hollows  of  the  grove,  the  autumn  leaves  lie  dead ; 
They  rustle  to  the  eddying  gust,  and  to  the  rabbit's  tread. 

These  days  seem  to  me  the  saddest  of  all  the  year,  and  they 
always  bring  a  feeling  of  melancholy  with  them.  The  winds 
have  a  mournful  sound,  the  meadows  are  brown  and  dreary, 
and  the  woods,  how  forlorn  they  look !  All  the  bright  autumn 
leaves,  now  brown  and  dead,  lie  massed  together  in  the  hol- 
lows, rustjing  mournfully  as  the  breeze  sweeps  over  them,  or 
as  the  rabbit  steps  lightly  upon  them. 


146  LESSONS  IN   LANGUAGE. 

Lesson  171. 

DESCRIPTION. 

Describe  :  — 

The  oak.  The  maple.  The  pine.     . 

Lesson  172. 

CONJUGATION   OF  THE   AUXILIARY   MAY. 
Present  Tense.     • 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

1.  I  may  We  may 

2.  Thou  mayest  (mayst)  You  may 

3.  He  may  They  may 

Past  Tense. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

1.  I  might  We  might 

2.  Thou  mightest  (mightst)  You  might 

3.  He  might  They  might 

Can  [thou  canst]  has  for  its  past  tense  could  [thou 
couldest  or  couldst]. 

Must  has  the  present  tense  only,  and  has  no  variation 
for  person  and  number. 

Write  the  present  and  past  tenses  of  can,  and  the 
present  tense  of  must. 

How  is  the  second  person  singular  of  may,  can,  might, 
could,  would,  and  should  formed  from  the  first  person  ?  How 
is  the  second  person  singular  of  will  and  shall  formed  ? 


INDORSEMENT  OF  CHECKS.  147 

Lesson  173. 

SYNONYMS. 

Use  each  of  these  words  in  a  sentence  in  which  the  other 
synonyms  could  not  so  properly  be  placed :  — 

error  mistake  blunder 

abandon  forsake  desert 

Lesson  174. 

INDORSEMENT   OF   CHECKS. 

To  indorse  a  check:  first,  turn  the  check  so  that  the 
left-hand  end  becomes  the  top  of  the  check ;  second,  turn 
the  check  over  sidewise ;  third,  write  your  name  across  the 
back,  near  the  top. 

If  you  wish  to  deposit  a  check  or  to  make  it  payable  to 
bearer,  indorse  it  with  your  name  alone.  If  you  wish  to 
make  it  payable  to  some  particular  person,  write,  "  Pay 
to  the  order  of "  above  your  name. 

Write  your  name  on  the  back  of  the  check  just  as  it  is 
written  on  the  face.  If  your  name  is  misspelled  on  the  face, 
write  it  in  just  the  same  way  on  the  back,  and  under  this 
write  your  name  correctly  spelled. 

A  check  may  be  transferred  to  several  persons,  but  must 
be  indorsed  each  time. 

Write  a  check  negotiable  by  indorsement,  and  indorse  it 
properly. 

Make  the  check  non-negotiable. 

Make  it  negotiable  without  indorsement. 


148 


LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 


Describe :  — 

The  dandelion. 


Lesson  175. 

DESCRIPTION, 
The  daisy. 


The  violet. 


Lesson  176. 

CONJUGATION   OF  THE  VERB   HAVE. 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 
Present,  have ;        past,  had  ;        past  participle,  had. 

INDICATIVE  MODE. 
Present  Tense. 

PLURAL. 

We  have 
You  have 
They  have 
Past  Tense. 

PLURAL. 

We  had 
You  had 
They  had 
Future  Tense. 

PLURAL. 

We  shall  have 
You  will  have 
They  will  have 

The  present  perfect,  past  perfect,  and  future  perfect 
tenses  are  respectively  formed  by  adding  had  to  the  forms 
given  above.  Write  out  these  forms. 


SINGULAR. 

1. 

I  have 

2. 

Thou  hast 

3. 

He  has  (hath) 

SINGULAR. 

1. 

I  had 

2. 

Thou  hadst 

3. 

He  had 

SINGULAR. 

1. 

I  shall  have 

2. 

Thou  wilt  have 

3. 

He  will  have 

CONJUGATION   OF  THE   VERB  HAVE.  149 

POTENTIAL  MODE. 

Present  Tense. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

1.  I  may  have  We  may  have 

2.  Thou  mayest  have  You  may  have 

3.  He  may  have  They  may  have 
The  auxiliaries  can  and  must  may  be  used  in  place  of 

may  in  forming  the  present  potential  of   this  and  other 

verbs. 

Past  Tense. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

1.  I  might  have  We  might  have 

2.  Thou  mightest  have  You  might  have 

3.  He  might  have  They  might  have 

The  auxiliaries  could,  would,  and  should  may  be  used 
instead  of  might. 

The  present  perfect  tense  is  formed  by  adding  had  to 
the  forms  of  the  present  tense,  and  the  past  perfect  tense 
by  adding  had  to  the  forms  of  the  past  tense.  Write  out 

these  forms. 

SUBJUNCTIVE   MODE. 
Present  Tense. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

1.  If  I  have  If  we  have 

2.  If  thou  have  If  you  have 

3.  If  he  have  If  they  have 

Past  Tense. 

IMPERATIVE  MODE. 

Present  Tense. 
2.   Have  [thou]  Have  [you] 

INFINITIVES. 
Present.  Perfect. 

To  have  To  have  had 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present.  Past.  Perfect. 

Having  Had  Having  had 


150  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 


Lesson  177. 

CAUTIONS. 


Do  not  use — 


first  of  all  for  first  climb  up  for  climb 

last  of  all  for  last  rise  up  for  rise 

both  alike  for  alike  cover  over  for  cover 

equally  as  well  for  equally  sink  down  for  sink 

well,  or  as  well  on  to  for  upon  or  on 

widow  woman  for  widow  over  again  for  again 

The  preposition  of  should  not  be  used  unnecessarily  after 
a  verb  or  an  adverb.  Do  not  say  "  admit  of,"  "  allow  of," 
"off  of." 

The  expressions  which  you  are  directed  not  to  use  con- 
tain words  not  necessary  to  the  sense. 


Lesson  178. 

CONTRASTED   DESCRIPTIONS. 

An  object  is  not  sufficiently  described  if  any  important 
statement  is  omitted,  or  if  the  description  given  is  equally 
true  of  some  similar  object. 

Accuracy  and  power  in  description  are  best  secured  by 
exercises  in  contrasted  description ;  and  so  much  of  con- 
trast as  is  essential  should  be  given  in  every  description. 
The  outlines  already  given  will  be  found  of  service  in 
writing  contrasted  descriptions.  In  connection  with  each 
question  ask,  How  do  the  objects  being  described  resemble 
each  other  in  this  particular,  and  how  do  they  differ? 


CONTRASTED  DESCRIPTIONS.  151 

Study  this  contrasted  description  of  — 

THE  OWL  AND  THE  EAGLE. 

The  owl  and  the  eagle  are  both  birds  of  prey,  but  the  owl 
seeks  his  prey  by  night,  while  the  eagla  seeks  his  by  day. 

The  owl  is  distinguished  from  all  other  birds  by  his  ex- 
tremely large  head  and  great,  staring  eyes,  which  are  sur- 
rounded by  a  disk  of  feathers  radiating  outwards.  These  eyes 
can  see  well  in  twilight  or  moonlight,  but  are  unable  to  bear 
the  glare  of  sunlight.  The  owl's  sense  of  hearing  is  very 
acute.  His  plumage  is  loose  and  very  soft,  and  his  flight  is 
almost  noiseless,  thus  enabling  him  to  take  his  prey  by  sur- 
prise. 

The  eagle  is  remarkable  for  his  exceedingly  keen  eyesight 
and  his  great  strength.  He  soars  to  a  vast  height  in  the  sky. 

The  eagle  is  a  finer  looking  bird  than  the  owl.  The  plumage 
of  these  birds  varies  in  different  species,  but  the  eagle  is  gen- 
erally golden-brown,  and  the  owl  gray  or  white.  The  bill  of 
the  eagle  is  curved,  though  not  from  the  very  base,  like  the 
owl's.  The  wings  of  the  eagle  are  very  broad,  and  are  adapted 
for  rapid  and  lengthy  nights,  while  the  wings  of  the  owl, 
though  generally  long,  are  not  so  serviceable.  The  claws  of 
both  birds  are  curved  and  sharp,  but  those  of  the  eagle  are 
much  stronger. .  The  tail  of  the  owl,  unlike  that  of  the  eagle, 
is  generally  rather  short  and  round. 

The  owl  lays  five  or  six  eggs,  and  the  eagle  two  or  three. 
Both  birds  feed  upon  hares,  fishes,  birds,  and  game  of  every 
kind.  The  eagle  often  carries  off  and  devours  larger  animals, 
such  as  little  pigs  and  lambs,  while  some  species  of  owls  live 
entirely  upon  insects. 

The  owl  is  often  considered  a  bird  of  ill-omen,  perhaps  on 
account  of  his  peculiar,  dismal  cry.  The  eagle  is  called  the 
King  of  Birds,  and  is  regarded  as  an  emblem  of  might  and 
courage. 


152  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

Lesson  179. 

CONJUGATION    OF   THE   VERB   WRITE. 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 
Present ,  write ;  past,  wrote ;  past  participle,  written. 

INDICATIVE  MODE. 

Present  Tense. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

1.  I  write  We  write 

2.  Thou  writest  You  write 

3.  He  writes  (writeth)  They  write 

Past  Tense. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

1.  I  wrote  We  wrote 

2.  Thou  wrotest  You  wrote 

3.  He  wrote  They  wrote 

The  future  tense  is  formed  by  adding  write  to  the  forms 
of  the  present  tense  of  the  auxiliary  shall  or  will.  The 
present  perfect,  past  perfect,  and  future  perfect  tenses  are 
formed  by  adding  written  to  the  present,  past,  and  future 
tenses  respectively  of  the  indicative  mode  of  have.  Write 
out  these  forms. 

POTENTIAL   MODE. 

The  present  and  past  tenses  potential  are  formed  by  add- 
ing write  to  the  present  and  past  tenses  of  may,  can,  or 
must.  The  present  perfect  and  past  perfect  tenses  are 
formed  by  adding  written  to  the  present  and  the  past 
tenses  potential  of  have.  Write  out  these  forms. 


ORDER    OF  EMPHASIS.  153 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE. 
Present  Tense. 

The  form  write  is  used  without  variation  for  person  and 
number. 

Past  Tense. 

The  form  wrote  is  used  without  variation  for  person  and 
number. 

IMPERATIVE  MODE. 

Present  Tense. 
Write  [thou]  Write  [you] 

INFINITIVES. 

Present.  Perfect. 

To  write  To  have  written. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present.  Past.  Perfect. 

Writing  Written  Having  written 


Lesson  180. 

ORDER  OF  EMPHASIS. 

The  usual  order  of  words  in  a  sentence  gives  the  mean- 
ing most  clearly.  Force  and  elegance  are  often  gained  by 
an  unusual  order.  The  first  requisite  of  a  good  sentence 
is  clearness.  This  must  not  be  sacrificed  for  the  sake  of 
force  or  elegance.  But,  being  sure  that  your  sentences 
are  clear,  make  them  as  forcible  and  elegant  as  you  can. 

Any  unusual  position  makes  an  element  emphatic.     The 


154  LESSONS   IN  LANGUAGE. 

emphatic  position  for  the  subject  is,  therefore,  the  middle 
or  the  end  of  the  sentence. 

To  give  emphasis  to  the  subject,  the  sentence  may  begin 
with  a  phrase  modifying  the  subject,  or  with  an  adverbial 
element;  as, — 

Close  by  Harvard  College,  and  opposite  the  Cambridge 
Common,  was  the  birthplace  of  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes. 

From  the  summit  of  Vesuvius,  darkly  visible  in  the  dis- 
tance, there  shot  a  pale,  meteoric  light. 

Write  the  following  sentences  so  as  to  make  the  sub- 
jects more  emphatic :  — 

1.  The  live  thunder  leaps  from  peak  to  peak. 

2.  The  mouth  speaketh  out  of  the  abundance  of  the  heart. 

3.  More  than  150,000  Indians,  wholly  or  partly  civilized, 
live  within  the  limits  of  the  United  States. 

4.  A  picturesque  old  building  called  the  "  Old  Stone  Mill" 
is  found  in  the  city  of  Newport,  R.I. 

5.  Carthage,  surrounded  by  regions  without  a  master,  could 
not  resist  the  desire  of  conquest. 

6.  The  sons  of  New  England  are  found  in  every  state  of 
the  broad  republic. 

7.  Our  only  adequate  measures  of  time  are  derived  from 
the  observations  of  the  heavenly  bodies. 

8.  A  spacious  and  varied  landscape  stretched  far  beyond 
the  precincts  of  the  manse. 

9.  The   luxuries  of  Pompeii  would  have  sunk  into  insig- 
nificance, placed  in  contrast  with  the  mighty  pomp  of  Rome. 

10.  The  Arab's   deadliest  foe,  having   once  broken   bread 
with  him,  may  repose  without  fear  of  harm  beneath  his  tent. 

11.  The  trade  winds,  laden  with  moisture,  sweep  across  the 
Atlantic  to  Brazil  and  the  West  Indies. 


PROMISSORY  NOTES.  155 

Lesson  181. 

THE   VERB   DO. 

The  principal  parts  of  the  verb  do  are :  — 

Present,  do  ;          past,  did ;          past  participle,  done. 

Write  out  the  conjugation  of  this  verb  through  all  the 
modes,  tenses,  and  numbers  of  the  active  voice. 
See  the  conjugation  of  the  verb  write  on  page  152. 

Lesson  182. 

PROMISSORY   NOTES. 

A  promissory  note  is  a  formal  written  promise  to  pay 
a  certain  amount  of  money  to  a  certain  person  at  a  certain 
time,  or  upon  demand.  Like  a  check,  it  is  negotiable  or 
non-negotiable.  Three  days,  called  Days  of  Grace,  are 
allowed  for  the  payment  of  a  note  after  it  becomes  due. 

Copy  the  following  notes.  In  what  way  is  each  different 
from  the  others  ? 


c^ov-.  //,  1886. 

day*  after  date,        c/         promise 

to  pay  to  the  order  of     ft. 

c/  PI/L/&&  ri'i4s/yi'(A/L/&( 

at     C/1/L&-6  cficivuwicit  tocvyvk/f  w-iX/i  'U'ntsA^s^t  cit  t^i&  /idt& 


Value,  received.  IS&vLka,  L. 

No.  23q.      Dm  A^.  tTJZO,  '$6. 


156  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 


to  ^o-y   l&wv.  CL. 
76  1  '  /00 


No.  1/6.  (Ho-nM^oL,  cfr./t.,  few,.  22,  /$<?/. 

On  demand,  c/  promise 

to  pay  (fowwwi  &.  JbwfieAs,  or  order, 

Dollars, 

at     @x)-'Yi&o~/btL 

Value  received. 

ftpfiOO  I 
$^°       /  100' 

Lesson  183. 
ESSAY. 

A  FAKM-YAED  DURING  A  STORM.  —  Describe  what  you 
would  expect  to  see  in  a  farm-yard  during  a  storm.  How 
would  the  different  animals  look  ?  Describe  the  surround- 
ing buildings.  [Preserve  for  future  reference  what  you 
write.] 

MAPS.  —  Of  what  use  is  a  map  ?  What  is  the  difference 
between  a  map,  a  picture,  and  a  plan?  What  devices  are 
helpful  in  drawing  a  map  ?  What  should  a  map  of  your 
state  contain? 

THE  SUEZ  CANAL.  —  Describe  this  canal  as  to  location 
and  construction.  Tell  its  history;  state  its  importance. 


CONJUGATION  OF  THE   VERB  BE.  157 

Lesson  184. 

CONJUGATION   OF  THE  VERB   BE. 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 
Present,  am ;         past,  was ;        past  participle,  been. 


INDICATIVE  MODE. 

Present  Tense. 

SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

1.    I  am 

We  are 

2.    Thou  art 

You  are 

3.   He  is 

They  are 

Past  Tense. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

1.  I  was  We  were 

2.  Thou  wast  You  were 

3.  He  was  They  were 

The  future  tense  is  formed  by  adding  be  to  the  forms  of 
the  present  tense  of  shall  or  will. 

The  present  perfect,  past  perfect,  and  future  perfect 
tenses  are  formed  by  adding  been  to  the  present  tense,  past 
tense,  and  future  tense  respectively  of  have. 

Write  out  these  tenses. 

POTENTIAL  MODE. 

The  present  and  past  tenses  potential  are  formed  by 
adding  be  to  the  present  and  past  tenses  of  may,  can,  etc. 

The  present  perfect  and  past  perfect  tenses  are  formed 
by  adding  been  to  the  present  and  past  tenses  potential  of 
have. 

Write  out  these  tenses. 


158 


LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE. 
Present  Tense. 


SINGULAR. 

1. 

If  I  be 

2. 

If  thou  be 

3. 

If  he  be 

Past  Tense. 

SINGULAR. 

1. 

If  I  were 

2. 

If  thou  wert 

3. 

If  he  were 

IMPERATIVE  MODE. 

Present  Tense. 

2.  Be  [thou] 

Present. 
To  be 

Present. 
Being 


INFINITIVES. 


PARTICIPLES. 
Past. 
Been 


PLURAL. 

If  we  be 
If  you  be 
If  they  be 

PLURAL. 

If  we  were 
If  you  were 
If  they  were 


Be  [you] 

Perfect. 
To  have  been 

Perfect. 
Having  been 


Lesson  185. 

EMPHATIC   SUBJECT. 

Form  sentences  of  these  elements  and  arrange  them  in 
such  a  way  as  to  make  each  subject  emphatic. 

1.  White,  black,  and  gray  fox-skins.  Are  the  principal 
articles  of  commerce.  Gray  squirrels  and  sables.  Among  the 
Laplanders. 


CONTRASTED  DESCRIPTION.  159 

2.  These  colossal  mountains  glow.     In  warmer  light.     And 
of  warmer  hue.     Or  pyramid  of  Egypt.     Than  a  dome  of  Con- 
stantinople or  Venice  ever  did. 

3.  A  boy  was  born.     In  Italy.     Named  Cristopher  Colum- 
bus.    About  1435.     At  Genoa. 

4.  An  old  book  stands.      In  my  library.      On  one  of  the 
shelves.      And  in  various  languages.      On  various  subjects. 
Surrounded  by  volumes  of  all  kinds. 

.  5.  An  old  gentleman  was  there.  In  a  blouse.  A  very  fine 
young  man.  With  no  teeth  to  speak  of.  In  a  black  coat. 
Three  handsome  girls  were  there.  Making  an  interesting 
group. 

6.  Not  a  sound  was  audible.     In  some  meadows.      That 
descends  the  hill.     Except  that  of  the  sheep-bells.      By  the 
river.     Down  the  long  road.     Of  a  cart.     And  the  creaking. 

7.  There  was  a  small  gray  cloud.     Resting  on  the  water. 
The  size  of  a  man's  hand.     Down  in  the  south. 

8.  Henry  VIII.  had  lived  almost  without  blame.     With  his 
character  unformed.     Left  at  the  most  trying  age.     For  thirty- 
six  years.    With  the  means  at  his  disposal  for  gratifying  every 
inclination. 

9.  There  was  a  little  lowly  hermitage.      Down  in  a  dale< 
Far  from  the  resort  of  men.     Hard  by  a  forest's  side. 


Lesson  186. 

CONTRASTED   DESCRIPTION. 

Write  a  contrasted  description  of :  — 

A  lion  and  a  tiger.  A  dog  and  a  cat. 

An  eagle  and  a  vulture. 


160  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

Lesson  187. 

TENSES   OF   THE    SEVERAL   MODES. 

The  indicative  is  the  only  mode  that  has  all  the  tenses. 
The  potential  mode  is  used  in  four  tenses, — present,  past, 
present  perfect,  and  past  perfect. 

The  subjunctive  mode  is  used  in  two  tenses,  —  present 
and  past. 

The  imperative  mode  is  used  in  the  present  tense  only. 

Tell  the  modes  and  the  tenses  of  the  verbs  italicized  in 
the  following  story  :  — 

George  III.  one  day  visited  a  small  town  in  England,  and 
took  a  solitary  walk  that  he  might  see  something  of  the  country. 
He  came  to  a  hay-field  in  which  there  ivas  only  one  woman  at 
work.  The  King  asked  where  all  the  rest  were.  The  woman 
replied  that  they  had  gone  into  town  to  see  the  King.  "  Why 
didn't  you  go  too  ?  "  inquired  George.  "  Pooh  ! "  she  answered, 
"  I  wouldn't  walk  three  yards  to  see  him.  Besides,  they  have 
lost  a  day's  work  by  going ;  and  were  I  to  go  my  children  would 
suffer,  for  I  am  too  poor  to  lose  a  day's  work."  George  slipped 
a  sovereign  into  her  hand,  and  said,  "  When  the  rest  shall  come 
back,  tell  them  that  while  they  had  gone  to  see  the  King,  the 
King  came  to  see  you,  and  left  you  his  portrait  in  gold  to 
remember  him  by." 

Lesson  188. 

STORY  TO   BE   IMITATED. 

THE  MOUNTAIN  AND  THE  SQUIRREL. 
The  mountain  and  the  squirrel  had  a  quarrel ; 
And  the  former  called  the  latter,  "  Little  Prig." 


PREDICATE  ADJECTIVE  EMPHATIC.  161 

Bun  replied,  "  You  are  doubtless  very  big  ; 

But  all  sorts  of  things  and  weather 

Must  be  taken  in  together 

To  make  up  a  year 

And  a  sphere ; 

And  I  think  it  no  disgrace 

To  occupy  my  place. 

If  I'm  not  so  large  as  you, 

You  are  not  so  small  as  I, 

And  not  half  so  spry. 

I'll  not  deny  you  make 

A  very  pretty  squirrel  track ; 

Talents  differ ;  all  is  well  and  wisely  put ; 

If  I  cannot  carry  forests  on  my  back, 

Neither  can  you  crack  a  nut.  R.  W.  EMERSON. 

Write  in  your  own  words  a  somewhat  similar  speech 
which  a  bird  might  make  to  a  tree  with  which  he  had 
quarrelled. 

Lesson  189. 

PREDICATE   ADJECTIVE   EMPHATIC. 

What  is  the'  natural  position  of  the  predicate  adjective  ? 
How  can  it  be  made  emphatic  ? 

Write  the  following  sentences  so  as  to  emphasize  the 
predicate  adjective:  — 

1.  All  the  fine  offers  of  hospitality  are  vain  and  forgotten, 
if  the  eye  speaks  otherwise. 

2.  Running  water  is  clear,  sweet,  and  fresh;  but  stagnant 
water  is  impure  and  harmful. 

3.  Castles  in  the  air  are  always  more  magnificent  than  the 
homes  in  which  we  dwell. 


162  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

4.  The  merciful  are  blessed,  for  they  shall  obtain  mercy. 

5.  Thy  dwelling  is  narrow  now  —  the  place  of  thine  abode 
dark. 

6.  He  was  strong  and  brave  and  violent. 

7.  The  houses  were  so  near  to  the  water  that  from  a  little 
distance  they  seemed  a  black  fringe  to  the  land. 

8.  The  air  of  mountains  is  too  rarefied,  and  that  of  deep 
mines  too  dense,  for  the  free  development  of  animal  or  vege- 
table life. 

9.  Is  it  not  strange  that  there  should  be  such  a  likeness  ? 


Lesson  19O. 

NOTES   ON   THE   MODES. 

The  indicative  is  the  chief  mode,  and  may  be  used  in  the 
place  of  each  of  the  other  modes. 

Like  the  potential  mode,  it  may  assert  obligation ;  as,  — 

He  ought  to  do  it. 

Like  the  subjunctive  mode,  it  may  assert  condition  ; 
as, 

If  it  rains,  we  shall  not  go. 

Like  the  imperative  mode,  it  may  assert  a  command; 
as,— 

Thou  shalt  not  steal. 

The  potential  mode  is  distinguished  from  the  indicative 
more  by  the  auxiliaries  it  employs  than  by  any  absolute 
difference  of  use. 


NOTES   ON    THE  MODES.  163 

The  subjunctive  mode  has  two  tenses, — the  present  and 
the  past,  and  has  no  variation  for  person  and  number. 
The  verb  to  be  is  an  exception  to  this  statement.  For  its 
subjunctive  forms  see  page  158. 

When  the  action  or  the  being  expressed  by  the  verb  is 
stated  as  a  fact  or  is  referred  to  as  merely  unknown,  the 
verb  should  be  in  the  indicative  mode.  If  the  statement 
refers  to  'a  future  event  whose  existence  is  doubtful,  the 
present  subjunctive  is  usually  employed.  The  past  sub- 
junctive is  used  to  express  a  wish  or  a  supposition  contrary 
to  fact. 

Which  of  the  verbs  in  the  following  sentences  are  in 
the  subjunctive  mode?  Explain  the  application  of  the 
preceding  remarks  to  each. 

It  is  time  that  he  were  here. 

Would  he  do  it  if  he  were  in  her  place  ? 

I  wish  I  were  there. 

Were  I  so  disposed,  I  could  not  grant  this. 

The  bird  skims,  as  it  were,  over  the  plains. 

If  there  be  a  will,  wisdom  will  find  a  way. 

Had  there  been  less  suffering  in  the  world,  there  would 
have  been  less  kindness. 

Goethe  said  there  would  be  little  left  of  him  if  he  were  to 
discard  what  he  owed  to  others. 

Happy  were  it  for  us,  did  we  constantly  view  our  Creator 
in  His  works ! 

Though  he  were  as  rich  as  Croesus,  still  would  man  be  dis- 
satisfied with  his  condition. 

If  I  lose  mine  honor,  I  lose  myself. 

If  every  day  were  a  sunny  day,  who  would  not  wish  for  rain  ? 

If  the  brain  sows  not  corn,  it  plants  thistles. 

Though  He  slay  me,  yet  will  I  trust  in  Him. 


164  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

Lesson  191. 

ORDERS. 

An  order  is  a  request  made  to  an  individual  or  a  firm 
for  the  delivery  of  money  or  merchandise  which  is  to  be 
charged  to  the  account  of  the  writer. 

Write  the  following  order  from  dictation :  — 

$17T%V  BOSTON,  MASS.,  May  9,  1889. 

MESSRS.  BROWN  &  CHAPMAN. 

Please  pay  to  David  Smith,  or  bearer,  seventeen  and  -ffa  dol- 
lars in  merchandise,  and  charge  the  same  to  my  account. 

DENNIS  O'REILEY. 

How  does  an  order  differ  from  a  check  ? 
Write  two  orders  similar  to  the  one  given  above. 
Write  an  order  on  Marcus  Sheridan  for  eighty-seven 
dollars,  in  favor  of  Edward  Snow. 


Lesson  192. 

CONTRASTED   DESCRIPTION. 

Write  a  contrasted  description  of  copper  and  tin.  These 
hints  will  help  you  in  your  description. 

COPPER.  —  Obtained  from  fissures  or  veins  in  rocks  —  pecu- 
liar reddish  color  —  nauseous  taste  —  acted  upon  by  acids  — 
should  not  be  employed  in  cooking  —  very  malleable  —  easily 
corroded  —  second  only  to  iron  in  tenacity  —  fusible  —  ductile 
—  copper  bottoms  for  ships,  poisonous  rust  prevents  marine 
plants  and  animals  from  adhering  to  it  —  used  for  bell  metal  — 


EMPHATIC  AND  INTERROGATIVE  FORMS.          165 

lightning  conductors,  underground  telegraph  wires  —  coinage 

—  found  in  Great  Britain,  Australia,   Cuba,  Chili,  and  near 
Lake  Superior. 

TIN.  —  Silvery  white  —  soft  metal — tenacity  only  moderate 

—  easily  fused  —  brilliant  and  reflective  —  very  malleable  — 
does  not  rust — used  to  protect  surfaces  of  copper  and  iron 

—  manufacture  of  looking-glasses  —  dishes  —  tin-foil  used  in- 
stead of  paper  for  preserving  articles  —  employed  for  coating 
pins  and  culinary  utensils  —  found  chiefly  in  England,  also  in 
Bohemia,  Saxony,  Portugal,  Australia,  and  in  Black  Hills  of 
Dakota  —  found  in  veins  running  through  rocks,  and  also  by 
washing  alluvial  deposits. 


Lesson  193. 

EMPHATIC   AND   INTERROGATIVE   FORMS. 

Most  verbs  have  in  the  present  and  past  tenses  indica- 
tive and  in  the  imperative  mode  an  emphatic  form  made 
by  joining  their  root  to  the  present  and  the  past  indic- 
ative and  the  imperative  of  the  verb  do;  as,  I  do  study. 

Give  the  common  and  the  emphatic  forms  of  the  verbs 
study,  teach,  learn,  come. 

Verbs  are  conjugated  interrogatively  by  placing  the 
subject  after  the  verb  in  the  simple  forms,  and  after  the 
first  auxiliary  in  the  compound  forms  of  the  indicative 
and  potential  modes. 

Give  the  common  and  the  interrogative  forms  of  the 
indicative  and  potential  modes  of  the  verbs  skate,  try, 
and  go. 


166  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

Lesson  194. 

ADJECTIVE   EMPHATIC. 

Unite  these  elements  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  the 
adjectives  emphatic :  — 

1.  The  native  Laplander  defies  the  severity.     Wrapped  up. 
Of  his  climate.     In  his  deerskins. 

2.  The  general  gave  the  order.     Overwhelmed  with  doubt. 
To  retreat.     In  vast  numbers.     Of  the  enemy.     And  fearing 
the  approach.     Every  moment.     To  their  ships. 

3.  Thou  hast  been  to  me.     Very  pleasant.    Wonderful.    To 
me.     Thy  love  was. 

4.  Whether  king   or  peasant.      In  his  home.      Happiest. 
Who  finds  peace.     He  is. 

5.  Napoleon  never  seemed  to  be  aware.     To  the  captivating 
idol  of  fame.     That  truth  is  essential.     As  he  was  devoted. 
To  the  purest  and  most  lasting  celebrity. 

6.  The  noble  Ouster  fell.     Waving  aloft  the  sabre.     Aban- 
doned in  the  midst  of  incredible  odds.     Which  had  won  him 
victory  so  often.     Cut  off  from  aid. 

7.  Garfield  was  great.     In  death.     Surpassingly.     In  life. 
Great . 

8.  The  steps  of  freedom  are  slow.     But  her  feet  turn  back- 
ward never. 

Lesson  195. 

DIALOGUE. 

THE  HAPPIEST  SPOT. 

But  where  to  find  that  happiest  spot  below, 
Who  can  direct  when  all  pretend  to  know  ? 


NEGATIVE  FORMS.  167 

The  shuddering  tenant  of  the  frigid  zone 
Boldly  proclaims  that  happiest  spot  his  own, 
Extols  the  treasures  of  his  stormy  seas, 
And  his  long  nights  of  revelry  and  ease ; 
The  naked  negro,  panting  at  the  line, 
Boasts  of  his  golden  sands  and  palmy  wine, 
Basks  in  the  glare,  or  stems  the  tepid  wave, 
And  thanks  his  gods  for  all  the  good  they  gave. 
Such  is  the  patriot's  boast  where'er  we  roam, 
His  first,  best  country  ever  is  at  home. 

OLIVER  GOLDSMITH. 

Study  this  stanza  of  Goldsmith's,  then  write  a  dialogue 
between  an  Esquimaux  and  a  negro,  in  which  each  argues 
that  his  country  is  the  best.  Find  out  what  you  can 
about  the  regions  where  they  live,  and  make  your  dialogue 
interesting. 


Lesson  196. 

NEGATIVE   FORMS. 

Verbs  may  be  conjugated  negatively  by  placing  the 
adverb  not  after  the  verb  in  the  simple  form  and  after  the 
first  auxiliary  in  the  compound  forms.  Not  may  be  placed 
either  before  or  after  the  infinitives  and  participles. 

Give  the  negative  forms  of  the  verbs  hide,  look,  and 
ivhisper  in  the  indicative  mode. 

Give  the  negative  forms  of  the  verbs  send,  find,  and 
hasten  in  the  potential  and  imperative  modes. 

Give  the  emphatic  negative  interrogative  forms  of  the 
verbs  know,  sing,  and  see  in  the  indicative  mode.  [Present 
and  past  tenses.] 


168  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

Lesson  197. 

DRAFTS. 

A  draft  is  an  order  made  in  one  place  and  directing  the 
payment  of  money  in  another. 

Drafts  may  be  sight  drafts  or  time  drafts. 

A  sight  draft  is  payable  when  presented. 

A  time  draft  is  payable  at  a  stated  time  after  presenta- 
tion, or  at  a  certain  number  of  days  after  date. 

Drafts,  like  checks,  are  negotiable  or  non-negotiable. 

The  person  upon  whom  a  draft  is  drawn  may  accept  it, 
and  so  become  liable  for  its  payment,  by  writing  the  word 
"  Accepted  "  with  the  date,  and  signing  his  name  beneath 
it  across  the  face  of  the  draft,  near  the  left  hand  end. 
This  is  usually  done  in  red  ink. 

Copy  the  following  draft  :  — 


Dollars. 
Value  received,  and  charge  to  account  of 

Jhasnfat 


m     JN      '  /  -^     +•     Qr  * 
To  J^oA^ci  m&AJU/n,  if.  %h> 

No.  /6q.  gowtia* 

In  what  respects  does  a  draft  resemble  a  letter  ?  In  what 
respects  does  it  differ  from  a  letter  ? 

Write  a  draft  to  the  order  of  your  teacher,  directing  it 
to  the  Home  Savings  Bank  of  Jonesville,  Nebraska. 


PROGRESSIVE  AND  PASSIVE  FORMS.  169 

wesson  198. 

PROGRESSIVE  AND   PASSIVE   FORMS. 

The  progressive  form  of  a  verb  is  made  by  joining  the 
present  participle  of  the  verb  to  the  forms  of  the  verb  be. 

The  passive  [form]  voice  of  a  verb  is  made  by  joining  its 
past  participle  to  the  forms  of  the  verb  be. 

The  progressive  form  has  no  past  participle.  The  pas- 
sive voice  has  the  same  past  participle  as  the  active  voice. 

Give  the  progressive  and  the  passive  forms  of  the  verb 
choose  in  the  present  indicative ;  of  the  verb  catch  in  the 
past  indicative  ;  of  the  verb  miss  in  the  future  indicative  ; 
of  the  verb  give  in  the  present  perfect  indicative ;  of  the 
verb  take  in  the  past  perfect  indicative ;  of  the  verb  tell  in 
the  future  perfect  indicative. 

Give  the  passive  forms  of  the  verb  forget  in  the  poten- 
tial, subjunctive,  and  imperative  modes. 

Give  the  passive  infinitives  and  participles  of  the  verbs 
drive  and  steal. 

Give  the  interrogative  passive  form  of  the  present  per- 
fect tense,  potential  mode,  of  the  verbs  teach  and  forsake. 


Lesson  199. 

CONTRASTED   DESCRIPTION. 

Write  a  contrasted  description  of :  — 

Gold  and  iron.  Brass  and  bronze. 

Marble  and  granite. 


170  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

Lesson  200. 

OBJECT  EMPHATIC. 

The  object,  like  other  elements,  may  be  made  emphatic 
by  change  of  position ;  as,  — 

Our  blessings  let  us  never  forget,  however  small  they 
may  be. 

As  the  subject  is  a  more  important  element  than  the 
object,  emphasis  may  be  given  to  the  object  by  making  it 
the  subject  and  changing  the  verb  to  the  passive  voice. 

1.    James  struck  John.        2.    John  was  struck  by  James. 

In  the  first  of  these  sentences  attention  is  called  to 
James,  and  in  the  second  to  John. 

Write  the  following  sentences  so  as  to  make  the  object 
emphatic :  — 

1.  Great  undertakings  demand  mature  deliberation,  patient 
perseverance,  and  frequent  revision. 

2.  The  army  did  not  possess  a  braver  soldier  than  Captain 
Nolan. 

3.  Wherever  we  turn  our  eyes,  we  find  something  to  revive 
our  curiosity  and  engage  our  attention. 

4.  As  far  as  I  have  heard,  they  never  say  a  word  about  you. 

5.  The  study  of  mathematics  trains  the  mind  to  industry 
and  perseverance. 

6.  He  restored  me  to  my  office  and  hanged  him. 

Unite  these  elements  in  such  a  way  as  to  emphasize  the 
object  of  each  sentence :  — 

1.  I  have  none.  Silver  and  gold.  But  I  give  thee.  Such 
as  I  have. 


ItKrilODUCTlON.  171 

2.  No  man  hath  greater  love.     That  a  man  lay  down  his 
life.     Than  this.     For  his  friends. 

3.  Yonder  slip  of  a  boy  feels  to  be  true.     Of  the  king.     Of 
himself.     All  that  Shakespeare  says.     In  the  corner. 

4.  You  might  say.     Of  singing.     And  whistling.     That  the 
red  squirrel  successfully  accomplishes.     The  difficult  feat.     At 
the  same  time. 

5.  One  cannot  express.     In  these  Rocky  Mountain  solitudes. 
The  silence.     The  sense  of  space.     The  peculiar  atmospheric 
beauty.     Nor  can  one  describe, 

6.  An  idle  boy  invented  the  safety-valve.     To  let  off  the 
superabundant  steam.      To  save  himself  the  trouble.      In  a 
steam-engine.     Of  opening  a  small  door. 


Lesson  201. 

REPRODUCTION. 

LEARNING  TO  USE  TOOLS. 

A  boy  ought  to  be  at  home  in  a  barn,  and  learn  to  har- 
ness a  horse,  tinker  up  a  wagon,  feed  the  animals,  and  do 
a  hundred  useful  things,  the  experience  of  which  may  be  of 
special  service  to  him  in  after-life  when  unlooked-for  emer- 
gencies befall  him.  I  have  seen  an  ex-President  of  the  United 
States,  when  an  old  man,  descend  from  his  carriage,  and  re- 
arrange buckles -and  straps  about  his  horses  when  an  accident 
occurred,  while  the  clumsy  coachman  stood  by  in  a  kind  of 
helpless  inactivity,  not  knowing  the  best  thing  to  be  done. 
The  ex-President  told  me  he  had  learned  about  such  matters 
on  a  farm  in  his  boyhood,  and  he  was  never  at  a  loss  for  rem- 
edies on  the  road  when  his  carriage  broke  down. 

It  is  a  pleasant  relaxation  from  books  and  study  to  work 


172  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

an  hour  every  day  in  a  tool-shop.  The  learned  and  lovable 
Prof.  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes  finds  such  comfort  in  "mend- 
ing things  "  when  his  active  brain  needs  repose,  that  he  some- 
times breaks  a  piece  of  furniture  on  purpose  that  he  may 
have  the  relief  of  putting  it  together  again  much  better  than 
it  was  before.  He  is  as  good  a  mechanic  as  he  is  a  poet ;  but 
there  is  nothing  mechanical  about  his  poetry,  as  you  all  know 
who  read  his  delightful  pieces.  An  English  author  of  great 
repute  said  to  me,  not  long  ago,  "Professor  Holmes  is  writing 
the  best  English  of  our  times."  And  I  could  not  help  adding, 
"  Yes,  and  inventing  the  best  stereoscopes,  too  ! " 

JAMES  T.  FIELDS. 


Lesson  202. 

SHALL  AND  WILL. 

Shall  and  will  are  both  used  as  auxiliaries  to  form  the 
future  tense  of  other  verbs;  but  they  are  by  no  means 
interchangeable.  When  the  future  is  to  be  merely  fore- 
told and  without  the  expression  of  the  will  of  any  person, 
shall  should  be  used  in  the  first  person  and  will  in  the 
second  and  third.  But  when  the  speaker  wishes  to  show 
his  purpose  in  respect  to  a  future  act  or  event,  he  uses  will 
in  the  first  person  and  shall  in  the  second  and  third. 

This  distinction  gives  rise  to  a  common  and  an  emphatic 
form  for  the  future  tense. 

COMMON  FORM. 
Affirmative. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

1.  I  shall  We  shall 

2.  Thou  wilt  You  will 

3.  He  will  They  will 


SHALL    AND    WILL. 


173 


Interrogative. 


1. 
2. 

,3. 


SINGULAR. 

Shall  I  ? 
Shalt  thou  ? 
Will  he  ? 


EMPHATIC  FORM. 
Affirmative. 


SINGULAR. 

1.  I  will 

2.  Thou  shalt 

3.  He  shall 


SINGULAR. 

1.  Shall  I? 

2.  Wilt  thou? 

3.  Shall  he? 


Interrogative. 


PLURAL. 

Shall  we  ? 
Shall  you? 
Will  they  ? 


PLURAL. 

We  will 
You  shall 
They  shall 

PLURAL. 

Shall  we  ? 
Will  you  ? 
Shall  they  ? 


Shall  is  used  to  denote  obligation  or  necessity ;  will 
to  denote  choice  or  purpose. 

/  shall  go  means  that  in  the  course  of  events  my  going 
will  occur.  I  will  go  means  that  I  am  resolved  to  go. 

You  will  go  means  that  of  your  own  accord  you  will  go. 
You  shall  go  means  that  I  will  compel  you  to  go. 

He  will  go  implies  that  he  does  it  readily,  or  of  his  own 
accord.  He  shall  go  implies  that  I  will  require  him  to  go. 

In  the  interrogative  form  the  choice  of  the  person 
spoken  to  is  sought. 

Shall  I  go  ?  means,  is  it  your  wish  or  intention  that  I 
should  go  ?  Shall  you  go  ?  means,  will  circumstances  per- 
mit you  to  go  ?  Will  you  go  ?  means,  do  you  intend  to  go  ? 
Will  he  go?  inquires  whether  of  his  own  accord  he  will  go. 
Shall  he  go  ?  asks  whether  you  will  require  him  to  go.* 


174  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

Insert  either  shall  or  will  in  these  blanks,  and  explain 
why  you  use  the  auxiliary  that  you  do  in  each  case :  — 

I  fear  that  I  —    —  die  of  this  disease. 

If  I  go  out  in  the  rain,  I catch  cold,  for  my  fee,t  — 

get  wet,  as  my  shoes  are  thin. 

If  you not  assist  me,  I  -  —  not  be  able  to  finish  it  in 

time. 

I be  sixteen  years  old  next  May. 

I  hope  I soon  be  better. 

I not  be  there  so  early. 

-  I  go  with  the  letter  to  the  office  ? 

-  you  wait  till  I  return  ? 

I have  some  friends  to  dine  with  me  to-day ;  -  -  you 

join  us  ? 

Lincoln  once  wrote,  in  regard  to  the  Indians,  "  I not 

rest  until  they have  justice." 

Come,  now,  state  positively  whether  you or  not. 

We  —    —  not  look  upon  his  like  again. 

We  -    -  not  permit  you  to  do  this. 

The  distinction  between  the  use  of  should  and  would  is 
the  same  as  that  between  shall  and  will,  should  being  the 
past  tense  of  shall,  and  would  the  past  tense  of  will.  Should 
likewise  expresses  wish  or  purpose ;  as,  — 

You  should  do  it. 

State  the  difference  between  — 

Will  you  leave  me  ?  and  Shall  you  leave  me  ? 
You  will  leave  me  and  You  shall  leave  me. 
He  will  go  and  He  shall  go. 
Will  he  go  ?  and  Shall  he  go  ? 

You  will  not  shoot  anything  this  afternoon  and  You  shall 
not  shoot  anything  this  afternoon, 


BUSINESS   FORMS.  —  ESSAYS.  175 

Lesson  203. 

BUSINESS   FORMS. 

1.    Write  an  order  for  goods. 

'2.   Make  out  the  bill  for  the  goods  ordered. 

3.  Write  three  different  kinds  of  checks  in  payment  of 
the  bill.     Indorse  one  of  them. 

4.  Write  a  receipt  acknowledging  the  payment  of  the 
bill. 

5.  Write  an  order  for  the  amount  of  the  bill  to  be  paid 
in  merchandise  by  some  business  firm. 

6.  Make  a  sight  draft  to  pay  the  bill. 

7.  Make  a  time  draft  to  pay  the  bill. 

8.  Write  an  interest-bearing  promissory  note  in  pay- 
ment of  the  bill. 


Lesson  204. 

ESSAYS. 

GIPSIES.  —  Tell  what  you  can  of  the  history,  habits,  and 
means  of  living  of  the  gipsies. 

OLD  AND  MODERN  FURNITURE.  —  Contrast  the  furni- 
ture and  decoration  of  a  dwelling-room  of  olden  time  with 
that  of  a  modern  one. 

PARKS.  —  For  what  are  parks  intended  ?  Describe  a 
park  in  your  city. 

HISTORY.  —  Write  a  description  of  a  beautiful  landscape 
that  you  have  seen. 


176  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

Lesson  205. 

ADVERBIAL    ELEMENTS   EMPHATIC. 

An   adverbial   element   is    rendered  prominent   by  being 
placed  at  the  beginning  <qf  the  sentence ;  as,  — 

Scarcely  for  a  righteous  man  will  one  die,  yet  peradventure 
for  a  good  man  some  would  even  dare  to  die. 

Write  the  following  sentences  so  as  to  make  the  adverb 
or  adverbial  phrase  emphatic  :  — 

1.  The  animals  excel  us  in  some  respects. 

2.  Every  word  is  necessary  in  poetry,  where  every  word  is 
free. 

3.  All  the  organs  are  sheathed  in  a  snake ;  it  has  no  hands, 
no  feet,  no  fins,  no  wings.     The  organs  are  released  in  bird 
and  beast  and  begin  to  play.     They  are  all  unbound  in  man 
and  full  of  joyful  action. 

4.  David   encountered    Goliath   with  a  simple    sling   and 
stone,  and  slew  him. 

5.  As  iron  is  corrupted  by  rust,  so  the  mind  is  corrupted 
by  idleness. 

6.  A  skilful  eye  can  discriminate  different  kinds  of  wood 
by  observing  the  grain. 

7.  The  Pilgrims  set  sail  without  aid  from  the  government, 
and  without  any  royal  charter,  for  the  New  World. 

8.  The  bee   collects  but  very  little  honey  from   a   single 
flower. 

9.  The  sparrow  lives  in  affluence  during  three-quarters  of 
the  year.     He  makes  his  raid  on  gardens,  fields,  and  meadows. 

10.  He  earns  his  bread  by  the  work  of  his  own  hands. 


REVIEW  OF  CONJUGATION.  Ill 

Lesson  206. 

REVIEW   OF   CONJUGATION. 

Give  the  present  tense  of  shall ;  of  will.  In  what  mode 
and  tense  of  principal  verbs  do  you  find  the  present  tense 
of  shall  or  will  used  as  an  auxiliary  ?  Give  the  past  tense 
of  shall ;  of  will.  In  what  tense  of  principal  verbs  do  you 
find  the  past  tense  of  shall  or  will  used  as  an  auxiliary  ? 

Give  the  present  tense  of  may ;  of  can;  of  must.  In 
what  tense  of  principal  verbs  are  these  forms  used  as 
auxiliaries  ?  Give  the  past  tense  of  may  ;  of  can.  In  what 
tense  of  principal  verbs  are  these  forms  used  as  auxiliaries  ? 

Give  the  present  and  past  tenses,  indicative,  of  do.  In 
what  tenses  are  these  forms  used  as  auxiliaries  ?  Which 
auxiliary  verbs  are  used  as  principal  verbs  also?  Which 
auxiliary  verb  has  but  one  tense  ?  Which  auxiliary  verbs 
have  two  tenses  ?  Which  auxiliary  verbs  have  more  than 
two  tenses  ?  Which  auxiliary  verbs  have  compound  tenses  ? 
Which  auxiliaries  are  used  only  in  the  indicative  mode  ? 
Which  are  used  only  in  the  potential  mode  ?  What  aux- 
iliary is  sometimes  used  in  the  imperative  mode  ?  [Ans. 
Do.]  What  auxiliary  is  used  in  the  emphatic  form  of 
verbs  ? 

Lesson  207. 

CONTRASTED   DESCRIPTION. 

Write  a  contrasted  description  of :  — 

Day  and  night.  Sun  and  moon. 

Daisy  and  buttercup. 


178  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

Lesson  208. 

PARAPHRASE. 

Write  a  paraphrase  of  the  following  poem :  — 

FLOWERS. 
.  Spake  full  well,  in  language  quaint  and  olden, 

One  who  dwelleth  by  the  castled  Khine, 
When  he  called  the  flowers,  so  blue  and  golden, 
Stars,  that  in  earth's  firmament  do  shine. 

Wondrous  truths,  —  and  manifold  as  wondrous, 

God  has  written  in  those  stars  above ; 
But  not  less  in  the  bright  flowerets  under  us 

Stands  the  revelation  of  His  love. 

Everywhere  about  us  are  they  glowing  — 
Some,  like  stars,  to  tell  us  spring  is  born ; 

Others,  their  blue  eyes  with  tears  o'erflowing, 
Stand,  like  Ruth,  amid  the  glowing  corn. 

And  the  poet,  faithful  and  farseeing, 
Sees,  alike  in  stars  and  flowers,  a  part 

Of  the  self-same,  universal  being 

Which  is  throbbing  in  his  brain  and  heart. 

LONGFELLOW. 

After  changing  this  poetry  into  prose,  compare  the  result 
with  the  following  paraphrase,  and  see  which  is  better. 
Observe  how  much  more  beautiful  the  poetry  is  than  the 
prose  paraphrase  which  contains  the  same  thoughts. 

FLOWERS. 

A  poet  who  dwells  beside  the  Ehine  spoke  well  when  he 
called  the  flowers  the  "  stars  of  earth's  firmament." 


REVIEW  OF  CONJUGATION.  179 

God  has  written  many  and  wonderful  truths  in  the  stars 
that  shine  above  us,  but  not  less  in  the  flowers  beneath  our 
feet  is  there  a  revelation  of  His  love. 

Flowers  grow  about  us  everywhere :  some  to  tell  us  spring 
is  here ;  others,  their  petals  filled  with  dew,  stand,  like  Euth, 
amid  the  corn. 

The  poet  —  who  is  faithful  and  who  sees  farther  than  other 
men  do  —  sees  that  the  being  animating  stars  and  flowers 
is  a  part  of  that  being  that  fills  his  own  mind  and  his  own 
soul. 


Liesson  209. 

REVIEW   OF   CONJUGATION. 

In  what  tenses  of  the  active  voice,  common  form,  is 
the  root  of  the  verb  used  ?  In  what  tense  only  is  the 
second  principal  part  used  ?  [Remember  that  the  second 
principal  part  of  a  verb  is  used  only  in  the  past  tense, 
indicative  and  subjunctive  modes,  active  voice.]  In  what 
tenses  is  the  third  principal  part  used?  What  form  of 
the  verb  requires  the  use  of  the  present  active  participle  ? 
The  past  participle  ? 

How  is  the  imperative  mode  formed?  The  present 
infinitive  ?  The  perfect  infinitive  ?  The  present  participle  ? 
The  past  participle  ?  The  perfect  participle  ?  The  present 
indicative  ?  The  past  indicative?  The  future  indicative  ? 
The  present  perfect  indicative?  The  past  perfect  indica- 
tive ?  The  future  perfect  indicative  ?  The  present  poten- 
tial ?  The  past  potential  ?  The  present  perfect  potential  ? 
The  past  perfect  potential  ?  The  present  subjunctive  ? 
The  past  subjunctive  ? 


180  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

Give  the  first  person  singular  in  each  tense  of  the  in- 
dicative, active,  common  form,  of  the  verbs  write,  come, 
have,  be,  see,  love,  hate.  Give  the  emphatic  forms  of  these 
verbs.  Give  the  second  person  singular,  common  form, 
indicative  mode,  active  voice,  of  each  of  these  verbs.  Give 
the  third  person.  The  first  person  plural. 


Lesson  21O. 

BREVITY. 

Brevity  in  writing  is  a  main  element  of  force. 
Be  careful  not  to  repeat  the  same  word  needlessly,  nor 
the  same  meaning  in  different  words. 

The  time  for  learning  is  in  the  time  of  youth. 
The  time  for  learning  is  in  the  period  of  youth. 

In  these  two  sentences  the  italicized  words  are  the  same, 
or  have  the  same  meaning.  Omitting  the  superfluous 
words,  the  sentences  become :  "  Youth  is  the  time  for 
learning." 

Omit  all  superfluous  words  in  these  sentences :  — 

A  second  round  was  again  fired. 

An  idle  man  is  generally  looked  upon  with  eyes  of  distrust 
and  aversion. 

Every  man  on  the  face  of  the  earth  has  duties  to  perform. 

Before  you  write  you  must  first  think  what  to  say. 

I  looked  for  mistakes  throughout  the  whole  essay,  but  could 
find  none. 

He  seldom  ever  has  his  lesson. 

The  past  two  months  have  brought  us  an  abundant  plenty 
of  rain. 


BUSINESS  FORMS.  181 

For  the  first  time  he  gazed  upon  the  limitless  expanse  of 
the  boundless  prairie. 

Is  it  the  universal  desire  of  all  in  the  class  to  have  a  half- 
holiday  ? 

She  has  a  very  winsome  and  charming  manner,  although 
her  face  is  plain  and  not  handsome. 

By  the  Portuguese  law  every  person  is  legally  obliged  to 
join  the  army. 

I  like  the  old  original  tongue  best. 


Lesson  211. 

BUSINESS   FORMS. 

Providence,  R.I.,  March  15,  1890,  James  M.  Smith  buys 
of  Levi  W.  Robinson  one  bay  mare  for  $300,  a  covered  car- 
riage for  $225,  harness  for  $25,  sleigh  for  $40,  lap  robe  for 
$5,  whip  for  $1.25.  He  gives  in  payment  a  note  of  Geo. 
E.  Brown  for  $500  ;  balance  on  account.  Make  out  James 
M.  Smith's  bill  and  Geo.  E.  Brown's  note. 

After  twenty  days  Levi  W.  Robinson  draws  on  James  M. 
Smith  at  thirty  days'  sight,  for  the  amount  due.  He  makes 
the  draft  in  favor  of  Albert  J.  Mason.  Write  the  draft. 
Accept  it.  Albert  J.  Mason  turns  the  draft  over  to  J. 
Milton  Jones.  Make  the  indorsement. 


Lesson  212. 

REVIEW   OF   CONJUGATION. 

Give  the  third   person  singular  of   the   tenses   of  the 
potential  mode,  active  voice,  of  the  verbs  lay,  set,  raise,  do. 


182  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

Change  to  the  passive  form,  to  the  progressive,  to  the 
interrogative,  to  the  negative. 

Give  the  active  infinitives  of  the  verbs  get,  freeze,  drink, 
dig,  hold.  Give  the  passive  infinitives  of  these  verbs,  the 
active  participles,  the  passive  participles. 

Give  the  negative,  interrogative,  active  form  of  the 
present  indicative  of  the  verbs  love,  fear,  trust,  teach. 
Change  to  the  negative,  interrogative,  passive.  Change 
to  emphatic,  interrogative.  Change  to  negative,  emphatic, 
interrogative. 

Write  a  sentence  containing  the  verb  bring  active,  in- 
dicative, past,  third  person,  plural.  Change  the  verb  to 
the  corresponding  passive  form. 

Write  the  verb  find  in  the  various  forms,  common,  em- 
phatic, passive,  and  progressive,  using  in  each  form  the 
third  person  singular  of  the  past  tense. 


Lesson  213. 

ESSAYS. 

THE  SENSES.  —  How  many  senses  are  there?  What 
is  the  organ  of  each  ?  What  do  we  learn  or  what  do  we 
enjoy  by  means  of  each?  Which  do  you  think  is  the 
most  precious? 

THE  SEASONS.  —  What  are  the  causes  of  the  seasons  ? 
How  do  the  seasons  of  our  country  differ  from  those  in 
tropical  countries?  From  those  of  the  frigid  zones? 
Describe  the  appearance  of  our  country  in  each  season. 
What  employments  and  games  are  suitable  for  each  sea- 
son ?  Which  season  do  you  like  the  best  ?  Why  ? 


DUTIES    OF  A    SECRETARY.  183 

Lesson  214. 

DUTIES   OF   A   SECRETARY. 

At  the  opening  of  each  session  of  the  body  of  which  he 
is  an  officer,  the  secretary  should  hand  to  the  president  an 
order  of  business  for  the  session  and  a  statement  of  what 
matters  of  business  are  to  be  considered. 

At  the  meetings  the  secretary  is  to  read  all  that  he  may 
be  called  upon  to  read  by  the  president,  and  when  neces- 
sary he  is  to  call  the  roll  of  members.  It  is  his  duty  to 
give  all  parties  concerned  due  notice  of  the  action  of  the 
body. 

The  chief  duty  of  a  secretary  or  clerk  is  to  make  true 
records  of  what  is  done  in  the  meetings  of  his  society  or 
organization.  He  is  not  a  reporter,  and  it  is  not  his  busi- 
ness to  report  speeches  or  opinions,  but  only  the  action  of 
the  meeting.  This  record  will  include  negative  as  well  as 
affirmative  votes,  but  will  not  include  what  is  proposed 
and  not  voted  upon. 

It  is  usual  to  have  the  records  of  each  meeting  made 
up  by  the  secretary,  and  approved  by  the  president  soon 
after  the  close  of  each  session.  At  the  opening  of  the  next 
session  these  records  are  read  by  the  secretary  for  approval 
by  the  meeting.  At  this  reading  any  member  may  call 
attention  to  errors  and  omissions ;  and  the  president  [chair- 
man] then  directs  what  changes  are  to  be  made,  if  he  can 
do  this  by  general  consent.  If  objections  are  made  to  the 
corrections  that  are  proposed,  the  corrections  must  be  made 
by  motion  as  amendments. 


184  LESSONS  IN   LANGUAGE. 

Lesson  215. 

BREVITY. 

Brevity,  and  hence  force,  may  be  secured  — 

1.  By  the  omission  of   conjunctions  which  are  readily 
understood;  as, — 

Break  the  latch ;   [and]  force  open  the  door. 

2.  By  not  repeating  with  each  verb  a  subject  common 
to  several ;  as,  — 

He  rushed  amidst  them  with  his  sword  drawn,  [he]  threw 
them  into  confusion,  [he]  pushed  his  advantage,  and  [he] 
obtained  a  complete  victory. 

3.  By  not  repeating  with  each  verb  an  object  common 
to  several ;  as,  — 

All  desire  [a  happy  old  age],  but  not  many  attain,  a  happy 
old  age. 

4.  By  omitting  in  the  last  part  of   a  sentence  a  verb 
which  has  been  expressed  in  the  first  part ;  as,  — 

Eeading  makes  a  full  man;  conference  [makes]  a  ready 
man ;  and  writing  [makes]  an  exact  man. 

Make  the  following  sentences  more  brief  and  forcible  by 
omission  of  words  :  — 

The  Egyptians  gave  us  architecture  and  agriculture  ;  the 
Hebrews  gave  us  religion ;  the  Hindoos  gave  us  philosophy ; 
the  Arabs  gave  us  mathematics ;  the  Chinese  gave  us  filial 
reverence ;  the  Greeks  gave  us  beauty ;  the  Eomans  gave  us 
law. 

Charles  Dickens,  a  noted  English  novelist,  was  born  in  1812  ,• 
and  he  died  in  1870. 


CONTRASTED    DESCRIPTION.  185 

It  is  by  instinct  that  birds  build  their  nests,  and  bees  build 
their  honeycombs,  and  beavers  build  their  dams  and  huts. 

The  general  praised  his  soldiers  and  rewarded  them. 

The  guide  could  not  speak  German  so  well  as  he  could 
speak  French. 

Then  he  refused  to  go,  arid  now  he  begs  permission  to  do  so. 

After  he  had  disposed  of  his  merchandise  he  bought  a  cargo 
of  grain,  and  he  then  set  sail,  and  he  came  to  another  port 
where  he  soon  sold  this  second  cargo. 

Is  there  anything  in  the  world  more  active  than  water  as  it 
rushes  along  in  the  swift  brook,  or  as  it  spouts  up  in  the  foun- 
tain, or  as  it  trickles  down  from  the  roof  ? 

Be  ready  to  aid  such  people  as  need  help  and  deserve  help. 

Death  does  not  spare  the  rich,  and  as  little  does  death  spare 
the  poor. 

In  his  family  he  was  dignified  and  gentle,  and  in  his  public 
life  he  was  dignified  and  gentle  also. 

The  nights  were  cool,  and  the  days,  too,  were  cool. 

One  sun  shines  by  day,  by  night  ten  thousand  suns  shine. 

The  shrub  is  taller  than  the  flower  which  grows  in  its  shade ; 
the  tree  is  taller  than  the  shrub ;  the  rock  is  taller  than  the 
tree ;  the  mountain  is  taller  than  the  single  rock ;  and  above 
all  are  the  sun  and  the  heavens. 


Lesson  216. 

CONTRASTED   DESCRIPTION. 

Tea  and  coffee.  Ginger  and  cinnamon. 

Cotton  and  linen. 


186  LESSON8  IN   LANGUAGE. 

Lesson  217. 

EXTENDED   PARAPHRASE. 

In  the  exercise  which  follows  something  more  than  a 
paraphrase  should  be  attempted.  The  paraphrase  should 
be  but  the  warp  to  which  is  added  a  woof  of  further  par- 
ticulars in  harmony  with  the  original  statements. 

Endeavor  to  produce  in  your  mind  a  clear  and  definite 
picture  of  the  scene  described  in  the  poem.  Fill  this 
mental  picture  with  further  items,  perhaps  expand  it  to  a 
wider  scene,  then,  using  the  language  of  the  poem  or  not, 
as  seems  best,  write  freely  a  full  description  of  the  scene 
as  it  is  now  pictured  to  your  mind. 

THE  TAVERN. 

I  could  paint  the  White-Hawk  tavern  flanked 

With  broken  and  wind-warped  sheds. 

And  the  rock  where  the  black  clouds  used  to  sit 

And  trim  their  watery  heads 

With  little  sparkles  of  shining  light, 

Night  and  morning,  morning  and  night. 

The  road,  where  slow  and  wearily, 

The  dusty  teamster  came.  — 

The  sign  on  its  post,  and  the  round-faced  host, 

And  the  high-arched  door,  aflame 

With  trumpet-flowers,  —  the  well-sweep,  high, 

And  the  flowing  water-trough,  close  by. 

ALICE  GARY, 


PARSING    VERBS.  187 

Lesson  218. 

PARSING  VERBS. 

In  parsing  verbs  tell  whether  each  is  regular  or  irregu- 
lar, transitive  or  intransitive ;  give  the  voice,  mode,  tense, 
number,  and  person;  and  name  the  subject  with  which  it 

agrees. 

I  live  here. 

In  this  sentence,  live  is  a  regular  verb.  It  is  intransitive, 
and  hence  has  no  voice.  It  is  in  the  indicative  mode, 
present  tense ;  and  is  in  the  first  person,  singular  number, 
to  agree  with  its  subject  I. 

Parse  the  verbs  in  the  following  sentences :  — 

I  am  not  what  I  was.  Strike  the  iron  while  it  is  hot.  The 
bird  flew  away.  It  froze  last  night.  If  I  were  he  I  would 
not  go.  We  have  been  sent  to  you. 

The  rain  descended,  the  floods  came,  the  winds  blew  and 
beat  upon  that  house,  and  it  fell. 

Consider  the  lilies  of  the  field,  how  they  grow ;  they  toil 
not,  neither  do  they  spin :  and  yet  I  say  unto  you,  that  Solo- 
mon in  all  his  glory  was  not  arrayed  like  one  of  these. 


Lesson  219. 

SECRETARY'S   RECORDS. 

You  are  the  secretary  of  a  school  club  called  "  The  Daily 
Doings  Club."  Your  record  of  the  first  meeting  may  be 
as  follows :  — 


188  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

HOUGHTON  SCHOOL,  EAST  SAGINAW,  MICH., 
Sept.  19,  1884. 

At  the  call  of  their  teacher,  the  pupils  of  Eoom  1,  Houghton 
School,  assembled  in  their  school-room  at  4  P.M.  this  day,  to 
organize  a  club  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  themselves  informed 
respecting  current  events.  The  meeting  was  organized  by 
electing  Mr.  Alfred  Smith  president  and  Miss  Eosa  Brown 
secretary. 

After  the  purpose  and  methods  of  such  an  organization  had 
been  explained  by  the  teacher,  Miss  Frank,  several  pupils 
spoke  in  favor  of  the  plan ;  and  it  was  at  last  unanimously 
voted  to  organize  such  a  club. 

A  committee,  consisting  of  Miss  Mary  Steinart,  Miss  Belle 
Stevens,  and  Mr.  Joseph  Moore,  was  appointed  to  prepare  a 
constitution  and  by-laws  to  be  reported  to  the  club  at  its  next 
meeting. 

On  motion  of  Miss  Sarah  Peters,  it  was  voted  that  all  pupils 
of  Eoom  1,  Houghton  School,  should  be  members  of  this  club. 
It  was  voted  upon  motion  of  Mr.  Samuel  Latham  that  the 
present  president  and  secretary  should  serve  until  the  perma- 
nent organization  of  the  club.  The  meeting  then  adjourned 
to  meet  at  4  P.M.  on  Tuesday  next,  Sept.  26,  1884. 

EOSA  BROWN, 

Secretary. 
A  true  record  of  proceedings. 

Attest:  ALFRED  SMITH, 

President. 

Write  in  form  somewhat  similar  to  the  foregoing  the 
records  of  the  first  meeting  of  a  school  debating  society. 

The  boys  of  the  class  may  write  the  record  of  a  meeting 
for  the  purpose  of  organizing  a  base-ball  club ;  the  girls,  a 
society  for  the  prevention  of  cruelty  to  animals. 


BREVITY.  189 

Lesson  22O. 

BREVITY. 

Brevity,  and  hence  force,  are  secured  by  using  a  word 
instead  of  a  phrase,  a  word  or  phrase  instead  of  a  clause. 
Make  the  following  sentences  more  brief  and  forcible  :  — 

The  soil  in  this  region  is  of  such  a  nature  that  little  can  be 
raised.  [A  more  forcible  sentence  would  be,  The  soil  in  this 
region  is  barren.] 

A  spoon  which  was  made  of  wood  and  a  plate  which  was 
made  of  pewter  were  his  only  utensils.  [A  wooden  spoon  and 
a  pewter  plate  were  his  only  utensils.] 

The  event  was  one  that  brought  surprise  to  all. 

When  he  heard  of  the  dangerous  position  in  which  we  were 
placed,  he  hastened  at  once  to  our  relief. 

The  noise  of  feet  that  seemed  in  a  great  hurry  was  heard. 

The  rains  which  we  have  had  of  late,  and  which  have  been 
so  heavy,  have  caused  the  waters  of  the  rivers  to  overflow  their 
banks. 

The  seasons,  as  they  change,  bring  us  a  variety  of  fruit. 

Have  you  ever  read  "Little  Men"?  It  was  written  by 
Louisa  Alcott. 

When  we  were  at  Boston,  we  went  one  day  to  Cambridge. 
It  is  in  Cambridge  that  Harvard  University  is  situated.  In 
that  city  also  is  to  be  seen  Longfellow's  house. 

As  he  walked  toward  the  bridge,  he  met  his  old  friend  the 
Captain. 

The  ostrich  is  unable  to  fly,  because  it  has  not  wings  in  pro- 
portion to  its  body. 

When  darkness  broke  away,  and  morning  began  to  dawn, 
the  town  wore  a  strange  aspect  indeed. 


190  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

Persons  that  are  inclined  to  be  quarrelsome  are  despised. 

If  he  had  possessed  a  sufficient  amount  of  patience,  he  might 
have  succeeded. 

Egypt  is  a  fertile  country,  and  is  watered  by  the  river  Nile, 
and  is  annually  inundated  by  it. 

As  I  did  not  know  that  you  had  returned  from  your  vaca- 
tion, I  did  not  call. 

Lesson  221. 

SYNONYMS. 

Use  each  of  these  words  in  a  sentence :  — 

delightful  pretty  excellent  handsome  lovely 

elegant        pleasing  pleasant  agreeable  nice 

beautiful     splendid  magnificent  grand  superb 

majestic      palatial  charming  exquisite  fine 

Find  as  many  words  as  you  can  that  may  be  used 
instead  of  horrid. 

Lesson  222. 
ESSAYS. 

LEATHER.  —  From  what  is  leather  made  ?  With  what 
is  it  tanned?  What  are  its  properties?  What  are  its 
uses? 

THE  EYE.  —  What  is  the  shape,  and  what  are  the  parts 
of  the  eye  ?  What  peculiarity  is  there  about  the  size  of 
the  pupil  ?  What  motions  has  the  eye  ?  How  is  it  pro- 
tected? Of  what  use  are  eyelashes  and  eyebrows?  Of 
what  use  are  tears  ?  What  are  some  of  the  things  which 
should  not  be  done  to  the  eyes? 


SECRETARY'S  RECORDS.  191 

Lesson  223. 

SECRETARY'S   RECORDS. 

The  record  of  the  second  meeting  of  The  Daily  Doings 
Club  (see  page  188)  would  begin  as  follows :  — 

HOUGHTON  SCHOOL,  EAST  SAGINAW,  MICH., 

Sept.  26,  1884. 

The  Daily  Doings  Club  met  in  Eoom  1,  Houghton  School, 
at  4  P.M.,  Sept.  26,  1884,  the  president  in  the  chair. 

The  minutes  of  the  previous  meeting  were  read  by  the  sec- 
retary, and  approved. 

Write  out  the  remainder  of  the  proceedings,  sign,  and 
attest  as  before. 

Lesson  224. 

CONTRASTED   DESCRIPTION. 

Write  a  contrasted  description  of :  — 

Jacob  and  Esau.  Moses  and  Elijah. 

Alfred  the  Great  and  Peter  the  Great. 


Lesson  225. 

DISTINCTION    BETWEEN   ADJECTIVES   AND 
ADVERBS. 

It  is  sometimes  difficult  to  tell  whether  an  adjective  or 
an  adverb  should  follow  a  verb. 

If  the  word  following  the  verb  denotes  some  quality  or 


192  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

condition  of  the  subject,  either  in  itself  or  as  affected  by 
the  action  indicated  in  the  verb,  it  should  be  an  adjective ; 

as,  — 

The  boy  is  ill.     He  hopes  to  become  well  again. 

The  weather  is  cold.  The  sky  looks  cold,  and  the  frozen 
ground  feels  cold  to  the  barefoot  boy. 

The  door  is  green.  The  grass  grows  green.  The  door  is 
painted  green. 

If  the  word  following  the  verb  denotes  manner,  time, 
place,  or  degree,  and  modifies  the  verb  rather  than  the 
subject,  it  is  an  adverb. 

Allan  looks  steadily  [adverb]  on  his  book. 
He  looked  tired  [adjective]. 

He  felt  carefully  [adverb]  and  found  that  the  knife  felt 
sharp  [adjective]. 

She  looks  coldly  at  him  [adverb]. 

He  arrived  safe  [adjective]. 

He  arrived  early  [adverb]. 

He  arrived  at  the  grounds  [adverbial  phrase]. 

He  sat  silent  [adjective]. 

He  sat  quietly  [adverb]. 

He  sat  quiet  and  silent. 

Use  each  of  these  verbs  in  a  sentence  with  one  of  the 
adjectives  or  one  of  the  adverbs  from  the  accompanying 
lists :  — 

tastes  acts  seems  should  be 

sings  saw  feels  writes 

works  talks  looks  .      speaks 

was  moves  felt  smell 

am  sounds  shines  arrived 

will  be  came  appeared          looks 


COMPARISON   OF  STYLE. 


193 


ADJECTIVES. 

sweet  faithful         neat  kind 

rough  harsh  unkind  pretty 

smooth  tired  even  correct 

true  sad  charming  angry 

ADVEJRBS. 

sweetly  smoothly       roughly  truly 

harshly  kindly  elegantly  peacefully 

prettily  quickly          charmingly  thankfully 


Lesson  226. 

COMPARISON   OF   STYLE. 

Compare  the  two  following  selections.  Observe  that 
the  shorter  one  contains  all  the  ideas  of  the  longer,  and  is 
the  more  pleasing  because  of  its  brevity. 

In  a  long  ramble  of  the  kind,  on  a  fine  autumnal  day,  Eip 
had  unconsciously  scrambled  to  one  of  the  highest  parts  of 
the  Kaatskill  Mountains.  He  was  after  his  favorite  sport  of 
squirrel  shooting,  and  the  still  solitudes  had  echoed  and 
re-echoed  with  the  reports  of  his  gun.  Panting  and  fatigued, 
he  threw  himself,  late  in  the  afternoon,  on  a  green  knoll 
covered  with  mountain  herbage,  that  crowned  the  brow  of  a 
precipice.  WASHINGTON  IRVING. 

Eip  suddenly  found  himself  upon  one  of  the  highest  parts 
of  the  Kaatskill  Mountains.  It  was  a  beautiful  day  in  autumn 
when  the  sun  was  shining  brightly,  not  a  cloud  was  to  be  seen, 
and  Nature  had  on  her  most  brilliant  robe.  Rip  had  been 


194  LESSON 8  IN  LANGUAGE. 

wandering  about  for  a  long  time,  hither  and  thither,  and  he 
had  come  upon  this  place  almost  without  knowing  it.  He  had 
roamed  about  in  this  way,  without  heeding  which  way  he  was 
going,  because  he  was  out  hunting  squirrels,  which  was  his 
favorite  out-of-doors  sport,  and  long  had  been,  and  the  shots 
from  his  gun  had  awakened  echo  after  echo  and  thus  disturbed 
the  calm  stillness  of  the  place.  The  afternoon  was  waning 
fast,  and  he  was  tired  and  exhausted,  so  he  decided  to  rest, 
and  threw  himself  down  upon  a  little  knoll  that  was  so 
covered  with  verdure  as  to  offer  a  comfortable  seat,  although 
it  overlooked  an  immense  yawning  precipice. 

Write  the  second  selection  in  your  own  language  and 
then  compare  what  you  have  written  with  the  first  selection. 


Lesson  227. 

CONSTITUTION   AND   BY-LAW. 

The  constitution  and  the  by-laws  of  a  society  are  usually 
reported  by  a  committee  appointed  for  the  purpose. 

Write  the  report  of  the  committee  appointed  to  frame 
the  constitution  and  by-laws  of  The  Daily  Doings  Club. 
See  page  188.  The  following  form  will  be  of  service  :  — • 

To  THE  MEMBERS  OF  THE  DAILY  DOINGS  CLUB  :  — 

Your  committee,  appointed  at  a  meeting  for  the  preliminary 
organization  of  The  Daily  Doings  Club,  would  respectfully 
submit  the  following  articles  and  by-laws,  with  the  recom- 
mendation that  they  be  adopted  as  the  constitution  and  by- 
laws of  this  society. 

ARTICLE  I. 

SECTION  I.    The  name  of  this  society  shall  be . 

SECTION  II.    Its  purpose  shall  be . 


EXTENDED  PARAPHEASE.  195 

ARTICLE  II. 
SECTION  I.    Any  pupil  —    —  may  become  a  member  of  this 

society . 

SECTION  II.    -    — . 

ARTICLE  III. 

SECTION  I.    The  officers  of  this  society  shall  be . 

SECTION  II.    The  president  shall  be . 

ARTICLE  IV. 
Eegular  meetings  of  this  society  shall  be  held . 

ARTICLE  V. 
This  constitution  may  be  altered  or  amended . 

BY-LAWS. 

1.  FEES.     [Here  may  be  inserted  some  rule  in  reference  to 
fees  of  members.] 

2.  INVITATIONS.     [Here  may  be  inserted  the  conditions  on 
which  persons  not  members  may  be  invited  to   attend   the 
meetings.] 

3.  [Here  may  be  inserted  any  rule  that  the  writer  deems 
necessary.] 

All  of  which  is  respectfully  submitted. 

.  >  Committee. 


Lesson  228. 

EXTENDED   PARAPHRASE. 

See  directions  on  page  144. 

THE  MILL. 

The  miller's  face,  half  smile,  half  frown, 
Were  a  picture  I  could  paint ; 


196  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

And  the  mill,  with  gable  steep  and  brown, 

And  dripping  wheel  aslant, 
The  weather-beaten  door,  set  wide, 
And  the  heaps  of  meal-bags  either  side. 

The  timbers  cracked  to  gaping  seams, 

The  swallows'  clay-built  nests, 
And  the  rows  of  doves  that  sit  on  the  beams 
•    With  plump  and  glossy  breasts, 
The  bear  by  his  post  sitting  upright  to  eat, 
With  half  of  his  clumsy  legs  in  his  feet. 

ALICE  GARY. 


Lesson  229. 

CONTRASTED   DESCRIPTION. 

Write  a  contrasted  description  of :  — 

New  York  and  Chicago.  London  and  Paris. 

St.  Petersburg  and  Berlin. 

Lesson  230. 

RELATIVE   PRONOUNS. 

1.  Washington  was  a  native  of  Virginia. 

2.  Washington  was  the  first  president  of  the  United  States. 

These  sentences  may  be  combined  thus :  — 

3.  Washington  was  a  native  of  Virginia,  and  he  was  the 
first  president  of  the  United  States. 

4.  Washington,  who  was  the  first  president  of  the  United 
States,  was  a  native  of  Virginia. 


RELATIVE  PRONOUNS.  197 

In  the  fourth  sentence  the  word  who  takes  the  place  of 
the  words  and  he  in  the  third  sentence.  What  use  has  the 
word  and  in  the  third  sentence  ?  What  use  has  the  word 
he?  What  uses,  then,  has  the  word  who?  [Ans.  It  is 
the  subject  of  the  clause  "  who  was  the  first  president  of 
the  United  States,"  and  connects  this  clause  to  the  noun 
"  Washington,"  for  which  it  stands.] 

The  picture  has  been  very  much  admired. 
It  was  painted  by  Mr.  Brown. 

These  sentences  may  be  combined  thus  :  — 

The  picture  has  been  very  much  admired,  and  it  was  painted 
by  Mr.  Brown. 

This  is  not  a  pleasing  sentence,  and  we  would  prefer  to 
say:  — 

The  picture  which  was  painted  by  Mr.  Brown  has  been  very 
much  admired. 

What  pronoun  is  there  in  the  last  sentence  ?  What  is 
its  antecedent  ?  How  many  clauses  are  there  in  the  sen- 
tence? What  are  they?  In  which  clause  does  which 
stand  ?  To  what  does  it  connect  this  clause  ? 

A  pronoun  which  connects  the  clause  in  which  it  stands  to  its 
antecedent  is  a  relative  pronoun. 

The  words  most  frequently  used  as  relative  pronouns 
are  who,  which,  that,  and  what.  Who  is  used  to  represent 
persons;  which,  to  represent  animals  or  things;  and  that 
is  used  in  the  place  of  who  or  which. 

Who,  which,  and  that  connect  clauses  by  showing  the 
relation  of  the  clauses  in  which  they  stand  to  their  ante- 
cedents. 


198  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

What  connects  clauses  by  belonging  to  both  of  them ;  as, 
I  will  give  you  what  you  need. 

Here  what  is  the  object  of  will  give  and  also  the  object 
of  need.  Its  use  is  most  readily  understood  by  substituting 
for  it  its  equivalent,  the  thing  which  or  that  which  ;  as,  — 

I  will  give  you  the  thing  which  you  need. 

That  should  be  used  instead  of  who  or  which :  — 
First,  when  it  follows  who  ;  as,  — 

Who  that  hears  can  fail  to  understand  this  ? 

Second,  when  the  antecedent  represents  both  persons  and 
things;  as, — 

The  musician  and  his  dancing  bear  that  you  saw  have  just 
come  to  town. 

Third,  when  the  clause  which  it  introduces  restricts  or 
defines  its  antecedent;  as, — 

They  that  persevere  will  win. 

Fourth,  when  its  antecedent  is  modified  by  no,  all,  any, 
each,  every,  same,  very,  or  an  adjective  in  the  superlative 
degree;  as, — 

It  is  the  very  reason  that  I  mentioned. 

It  is  the  bravest  men  that  are  the  most  gentle. 

The  fourth  statement  is  really  included  in  the  third. 

[J.s  following  such,  and  but  in  such  constructions  as 
"  There  was  no  one  but  did  his  best,"  are  by  some  con- 
sidered relative  pronouns.] 


CLEARNESS.  199 

Lesson  231.    . 

CLEARNESS. 

Clearness  is  an  element  of  style  more  important  than 
brevity.  If  you  cannot  be  both  brief  and  clear,  by  all 
means  be  clear  even  though  not  brief. 

Whenever  it  is  necessary  for  the  sake  of  clearness,  repeat 
an  antecedent,  a  subject,  a  verb  or  an  auxiliary,  or  a  preposi- 
tion. 

Explain  why  each  of  the  following  sentences  would  not 
be  clear  if  the  words  in  parenthesis  were  omitted :  — 

The  firemen  carried  out  the  piano,  (a  precaution)  which  was 
unnecessary.  [Here  the  antecedent  of  which,  "  a  precaution," 
must  be  retained,  or  the  sentence  would  be  ambiguous,  for  it 
might  be  understood  that  the  piano  was  unnecessary.] 

The  pilot  of  our  boat  saw  the  light  sooner  than  the  other 
pilot  (saw  it). 

Ignorance  is  the  mother  of  fear  as  well  as  (of)  admiration. 

He  declared  he  would  not  come,  (a  refusal)  which  I  quite 
expected. 

The  valley  of  the  Amazon  is  perhaps  as  large  as  (that  of) 
the  Mississippi.  • 

A  squirrel  can  climb  a  tree  quicker  than  a  boy  (can). 

Supply  the  omitted  words  and  make  corrections  in  the 
following  sentences :  — 

There's  an  omnibus  goes  to  every  train. 
There's  a  man  below  desires  to  speak  to  you. 
Here's  the  buttons  you  sent. 
There's  a  lawn  and  orchard  near  the  house. 
The  family  is  as  poor,  or  poorer,  than  the  one  you  have 
already  aided. 


200  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

Lesson  232. 

AMENDMENTS. 

An  amendment  to  any  motion,  resolution,  by-law,  or 
constitution  may  propose  to  add  certain  words,  to  strike  out 
words,  or  to  strike  out  certain  words  and  insert  others.  It 
is  usually  provided  that  amendments  to  the  constitution 
or  by-laws  of  a  society  must  be  presented  in  writing  at  a 
meeting  previous  to  the  one  on  which  action  upon  the  pro- 
posed amendment  is  sought. 

Give  notice  of  an  amendment  proposed  to  the  constitu- 
tion of  The  Daily  Doings  Club,  by  rilling  out  the  following 
form :  — 

I  hereby  give  notice  that  at  the  next  [regular,  annual]  meet- 
ing of  this  society  I  shall  propose  the  following  amendment 
to  the  constitution :  — 

From  Article ,  Section ,  to  strike  out  the  words 

and  insert  ,  so  that  the  section 

shall  read 

OLIVE  THORNTON. 

If  two  or  more  persons  join  in  such  a  notice,  the  word  1 
in  the  form  above  would  become  We,  and  each  name  would 
be  signed  at  the  close  of  the  notice. 


Lesson  233. 

ESSAYS. 

FAIRY  TALES. — Name  some  of  the  fairy  tales  which 
you  have  enjoyed.     Relate  one  of  them. 


COMPOUND   RELATIVE  PKONOUNS.  201 

BATTLE.  —  Give  the  events  which  led  to  some  famous 
battle.  Tell  what  you  can  about  the  battle.  Mention  the 
results  which  followed  from  it. 

EARTHQUAKES.  —  Where  are  earthquakes  of  frequent 
occurrence  ?  How  are  they  caused  ?  Mention  some  famous 
earthquakes,  and  tell  about  one  of  them. 


Lesson  234. 

COMPOUND  RELATIVE  PRONOUNS. 

Whoso,  what,  and  its  compounds  with  ever  and  soever, 
and  the  compounds  of  who  and  which  with  the  same  words, 
are  used  to  introduce  clauses  referring  to  an  indefinite 
person  or  thing.  They  are  called  compound  relative 
pronouns. 

Make  a  list  of  the  compound  relative  pronouns. 

Select  the  compound  relative  pronouns  in  the  following 
sentences.  Tell  to  what  each  is  equivalent,  and  state  the 
construction  of  the  antecedent  part  and  the  relative  part. 

Whoever  is  idle  will  fail. 
Whatever  is  evil  should  be  avoided. 
What  I  want  is  not  what  I  shall  get. 
Sell  it  for  what  you  can  get. 
Whosoever  will  may  come. 
This  is  what  you  want. 
Give  it  to  whoever  applies  for  it. 
Give  me  whichever  you  please. 
Whatsoever  God  doeth  shall  be  forever. 
Whoso  fmdetli  wisdom,  findeth  life. 


202  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

Lesson  235. 

SECRETARY'S   NOTICES. 

The  secretary  should  notify  the  chairman  of  every  com- 
mittee of  his  appointment,  arid  should  furnish  to  him  a  list 
of  the  other  members,  with  a  statement  of  the  matters 
referred  to  this  committee.  He  should  also  notify  each 
member  of  the  committee  -of  his  appointment  thereon,  and 
give  the  name  of  the  chairman. 

During  a  meeting  of  which  you  were  secretary,  it  was 
voted  to  have  a  public  debate  on  the  last  Friday  of  the 
month,  and  James  Tirrel,  chairman,  William  Halcross,  and 
Robert  Ames  were  appointed  a  committee  to  make  the 
necessary  arrangements.  Notify  each  of  these  persons  of 
this  action. 

The  following  form  will  be  of  service.  Make  the  needed 
changes. 

THE  DOYLE  AVE.  GRAMMAR  SCHOOL  DEBATING  CLUB, 
PROVIDENCE,  E.I.,  Dec.  19,  1889. 

MR.  WILLIAM  HALCROSS  : 

At  the  meeting  of  the  Doyle  Ave.  Grammar  School 
Debating  Club,  held  Dec.  18,  1889,  you  were  elected  a  member 
of  the  committee  on  public  debates,  of  which  committee  James 
Tirrel  is  chairman. 

Yours  respectfully, 

H.  S.  TURNER,  Secretary. 

The  Daily  Doings  Club  has  had  its  annual  election  of 
officers.  As  secretary,  notify  the  several  officers  of  -their 
election. 


PARTICULAR    TERMS.  203 

Lesson  236. 

PARTICULAR   TERMS. 

Learn  to  use  specific,  or  particular,  and  not  general  terms, 
to  give  names  and  dates,  and  all  details  needful  to  the 
exact  realization  of  the  scene  or  the  thought. 

Do  not  say  go,  but  travel  or  ride.  Do  not  say  "  In  a 
certain  city,"  but  "In  the  lower  part  of  New  York."  Do 
not  say  "  Once  upon  a  time,"  but  "  In  the  summer  of  1776." 

St.  Paul  says :  "  I  have  coveted  no  man's  silver  or  gold 
or  apparel ;  nay,  ye  yourselves  know  that  these  hands  have 
ministered  to  my  necessities  and  to  them  that  were  with 
me."  This  is  more  forcible  than,  "I  have  coveted  no 
one's  possessions,  but  have  by  my  own  efforts  obtained  a 
livelihood  for  myself  and  my  companions." 

Macaulay  is  a  master  of  the  art  of  using  details.  Notice 
this  description  of  Benares.  Such  a  style  is  delightful  to 
a  reader  who  has  imagination  and  leisure. 

His  first  design  was  upon  Benares,  a  city,  which,  in  wealth, 
population,  dignity,  and  sanctity,  was  among  the  foremost  of 
Asia.  It  was  commonly  believed  that  half  a  million  of  human 
beings  was  crowded  into  that  labyrinth  of  lofty  alleys,  rich 
with  shrines,  and  minarets,  and  balconies,  and  carved  oriels, 
to  which  the  sacred  apes  clung  by  hundreds.  The  traveller 
could  scarcely  make  his  way  through  the  press  of  holy  mendi- 
cants and  not  less  holy  bulls.  The  broad  and  stately  flights 
of  steps  which  descended  from  these  swarming  haunts  to  the 
bathing  places  along  the  Ganges,  were  worn  every  day  by  the 
footsteps  of  an  innumerable  multitude  of  worshippers.  The 
schools  and  temples  drew  crowds  of  pious  Hindoos  from  every 


204  LESSONS  IN   LANGUAGE. 

province  where  the  Brahminical  faith  was  known.  Commerce 
had  as  many  pilgrims  as  religion.  All  along  the  shores  of  the 
venerable  stream  lay  great  fleets  of  vessels  laden  with  rich 
merchandise.  Prom  the  looms  of  Benares  went  forth  the  most 
delicate  silks  that  adorned  the  halls  of  St.  James's  and  of  the 
Petit  Trianon ;  and  in  the  bazaars  the  muslins  of  Bengal  and 
the  sabres  of  Oude  were  mingled  with  the  jewels  of  Golconda 

and  the  shawls  of  Cashmere. 

MACAULAY. 


Lesson  237. 

INTERROGATIVE   PRONOUNS. 

The  interrogative  pronouns  are  who,  which,  and  what;  as, — 

Who  comes  there  ?  Which  do  you  prefer  ? 

What  is  the  matter  ? 

The  antecedent  of  an  interrogative  pronoun  is  sought 
by  the  question  in  which  the  pronoun  is  used,  and  should 
be  given  in  the  answer.  The  antecedent  of  the  interroga- 
tive should  be  given  in  the  answer  in  the  same  case  that 
the  pronoun  had  in  the  question. 

Who  comes  there  ?  I.     [JTot  me.] 

Whose  is  this  ?  It  is  mine. 

To  whom  will  you  give  it  ?  I  will  give  it  to  her. 

Who,  which,  and  what  are  interrogative  or  relative  pro- 
nouns according  to  their  use. 

Which,  with  its  possessive  whose,  and  what,  are  often  used 
as  interrogative  adjectives  also ;  as,  — 

Which  book  will  you  take  ?  Whose  hat  is  that  ? 

What  kind  of  a  man  is  he  ? 


DESCRIPTION.  205 

DECLENSION. 

SING.  AND  PLUR.  SING.  AND  PLUR. 
Nom.   who  which 

Poss.    whose  whose 

Obj .      whom  which 

Whose  is  used  both  as  an  adjective  and  as  a  pronoun. 
That  is  indeclinable.  Of  the  compound  relatives,  what 
and  its  compounds  are  indeclinable.  The  compound  forms 
of  who  and  which  are  declined  like  the  simple  forms. 

Decline  the  compounds  of  who  and  which. 


Lesson  238. 

DESCRIPTION. 

A  DESCRIPTION  OF  SOME  ONE  YOU  KNOW. 

Describe  some  one  whom  you  know,  by  answering  the 
following  questions  about  him  or  her :  — 

1.  'What  is  his  age  ? 

2.  What  is  his  size  ? 

3.  What  are  his  features  ? 

4.  What  is  his  complexion  ? 

5.  How  does  he  appear  ? 

6.  What  is  his  disposition  ? 

7.  How  does  he  spend  his  time  ? 

8.  What  are  his  talents  ? 

9.  What  are  his  virtues  ? 

10.  What  are  his  failings  ? 

11.  What  other  characteristics  has  he  ? 


206  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

Lesson  239. 

EXTENDED   PARAPHRASE. 

THE  LIME-BURNERS. 
I  could  paint  the  lonesome  lime-kilns, 

And  the  lime-burners,  wild  and  proud, 
Their  red  sleeves  gleaming  in  the  smoke 

Like  a  rainbow  in  a  cloud,  — 

Their  huts  by  the  brook,  and  their  mimicking  crew  — 
Making  believe  to  be  lime-burners,  too  ! 

ALICE  GARY. 

Of  what  is  a  lime-kiln  made  ?  How  does  it  look  ?  Why 
are  the  lime-kilns  called  "  lonesome  "  ?  Why  are  the  lime- 
burners  called  "  wild  and  proud  "  ?  How  can  their  sleeves 
in  the  midst  of  the  smoke  be  compared  to  a  rainbow  in  a 
cloud?  Who  are  meant  by  the  " mimicking  crew " ? 

Describe  the  picture  you  would  make  if  you  should 
"  paint  the  lonesome  lime-kilns  and  the  lime-burners." 


Lesson  24O. 

ADJECTIVE   PRONOUNS. 

1.  This  day  is  a  fine  day. 

2.  This  is  a  fine  day. 

In  the  first  sentence  this  is  an  adjective  modifying  day. 
In  the  second,  it  represents  both  words,  this  and  day,  and 
is  an  adjective  pronoun,  subject  of  the  verb  is. 

A  word  used  both  as  an  adjective  and  as  a  noun  is  called  an  adjec- 
tive pronoun. 


ANALYSIS.— POSSESSIVE  PRONOUNS.  207 

Name  the  limiting  adjectives  in  the  sentences  below. 
What  noun  does  each  modify  ?  Name  the  adjective  pro- 
nouns in  these  sentences.  What  noun  does  each  represent  ? 
Of  what  case  and  construction  is  each? 

One  person  was  taken,  and  another  person  left. 
One  was  taken,  and  another  left. 
Each  pupil  will  be  called  upon  to  recite. 
Each  will  be  called  upon  to  recite. 
Many  are  called,  but  few  are  chosen. 
All  may  do  what  mau  has  done. 

Those  who  try  to  do  something  and  fail  are  infinitely  better 
than  those  who  try  to  do  nothing  and  succeed. 

The  words  mine,  thine,  hers,  ours,  yours,  and  theirs  are 
equivalent  to  my,  thy,  her,  our,  your,  and  their,  respectively, 
together  with  a  noun,  and  are  used  as  pronouns  in  the 
nominative  and  objective  cases.  They  are  sometimes 
called  possessive  adjective  pronouns. 

Other  adjectives  sometimes  represent  both  themselves 
and  the  nouns  they  modify.  In  this  use  their  character 
as  nouns  is  indicated  by  putting  the  before  them ;  as,  — 

The  good  are  happy.  The  first  are  the  best. 

None  but  the  brave  deserve  the  fair. 


Lesson  241. 

ANALYSIS.— POSSESSIVE   PRONOUNS. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences :  - 

1.  You  have  your  plan,  and  I  have  mine.     2.  I  will  take  my 
method,  and  you  may  use  yours.      3.  Thine  is  the  kingdom. 


208  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

4.  Mary  has  brought  her  work,  but  Lucy  has  left  hers.  5.  I 
will  sell  my  land,  but  I  will  not  buy  theirs.  6.  This  house  is 
ours.  7.  I  would  not  change  my  place  for  theirs.  8.  His 
house  was  not  ours,  nor  was  ours  his.  9.  All  mine  is  thine. 

Parse  the  possessive  pronouns  in  the  foregoing  sentences. 


You  have  your  plan,  and  I  have  mine. 

" 


Lesson  242. 

THE    SIMILE. 

That  sentence  or  paragraph  is  clear  from  which  the 
reader  can  easily  and  fully  obtain  the  thought  presented. 
He  will  be  helped  in  this  by  showing  him  in  what  respects 
that  about  which  we  write  is  like  or  unlike  other  things 
well  known.  The  suitable  use  of  comparison  adds  clear- 
ness, force,  and  beauty  to  composition. 

1.  She  has  very  white  teeth. 

2.  Her  teeth  are  like  pearl. 

In  one  of  these  sentences  a  comparison  is  used  to  express 
the  thought  which  in  the  other  is  expressed  directly. 

A  direct  comparison  between  objects  of  different  kinds  is  called  a 
simile. 

"  Her  teeth  are  like  pearl "  is  a  simile. 

"  He  is  as  brave  as  a  lion  "  is  a  simile,  while  "  He  is  as 
patient  as  Job"  is  not  a  simile,  but  simply  a  comparison, 
because  the  comparison  is  made  between  two  persons  and 
not  between  a  person  and  a  thing  or  between  things  of 
different  kinds. 


NOTICE  OF  REFERENCE.  209 

In  a  simile  the  comparison  is  limited  to  one  point,  and 
is  generally  expressed  with  the  words  like  or  as. 

Study  the  sentences  which  follow.  Tell  what  things 
are  compared.  Find  all  the  similes. 

His  eyes  were  as  a  flame  of  fire,  and  his  voice  as  the  sound 
of  many  waters. 

The  righteous  shall  nourish  like  the  palm  tree;  he  shall 
grow  like  a  cedar  in  Lebanon. 

The  man  that  walketh  not  in  the  counsel  of  the  ungodly, 
shall  be  like  a  tree  planted  by  the  rivers  of  water. 

Honesty  without  principle  is  like  a  mirage  in  the  desert,  a 
lake  without  water. 

He  that  wavereth  is  like  a  wave  of  the  sea,  driven  with  the 
wind  and  tossed. 

Mercy  is  like  the  sunshine;  it  cheers  where  it  shines. 

A  man  in  anger  is  like  a  chariot  without  a  driver,  or  a  ship 
in  a  storm  without  a  pilot. 

As  the  morning  sun  dispels  mist  and  darkness,  so  a  cheerful 
countenance  dispels  the  troubles  of  a  vexed  mind. 

He  above  the  rest,  in  shape  and  gesture  proudly  eminent, 
stood  like  a  tower. 

Lesson  243. 

NOTICE   OF   REFERENCE. 

THE  HIGH  SCHOOL  OUTING  CLUB, 

OFFICE  OF  SECRETARY,  BANGOR,  ME., 

June  5,  1891. 
HAROLD  F.  FRELINGHUYSEN, 

Chairman  of  the  Committee  on  Finance, 

High  School  Outing  Club. 

DEAR  SIR:  At  a  meeting  of  the  Bangor  High  School 
Outing  Club  the  question  of  an  excursion  to  Moosehead  Lake 


210  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

was  referred  to  the  finance  committee,  to  report  what  the 
probable  cost  of  such  an  excursion  would  be,  and  whether 
the  condition  of  the  finances  of  the  club  will  warrant  the 
necessary  expenditure. 

You  are  requested  to  report  at  the  next  regular  meeting. 
Yours  truly, 

GEORGE  W.  GERALD, 

Secretary. 

Write  a  notice  of  a  reference,  to  a  committee  of  The 
Daily  Doings  Club,  of  some  matter  to  be  reported  upon  by 
the  committee. 


Lesson  244. 
ESSAYS. 

ANALYSIS.  —  Write  full  and  definite  instructions  as  to 
the  way  in  which  a  sentence  should  be  analyzed.  Analyze 
the  first  sentence  of  your  composition  as  an  example. 

SPELLING. — Why  is  good  spelling  important?  Describe 
a  spelling-match. 

CHINESE.  —  Give  as  full  a  description  as  you  can  of  the 
appearance,  habits,  and  food  of  the  Chinese. 


Lesson  245. 

AGREEMENT  OF  PRONOUNS  WITH  THEIR 
ANTECEDENTS. 

In  what  respects  do  pronouns  agree  with  their  antece- 
dents ? 

The  agreement  in  number  of  pronouns  with  their  ante- 


REPORTS  OF  COMMITTEES.  211 

cedents    follows  the   rules    given    for   the   agreement   in 
number  of  verbs  with  their  subjects.     See  page  129. 

If  a  pronoun  has  two  or  more  antecedents  of  different 
persons,  it  should  be  of  the  first  person  rather  than  the  sec- 
ond or  third,  and  of  the  second  rather  than  the  third ;  as,  — 

Ellen  and  I  have  our  books. 

You  and  Harold  may  fold  your  hands. 

Tell  the  antecedent  of  each  pronoun  in  the  following 
sentences,  and  state  why  the  pronoun  has  the  number, 
person,  and  gender  that  it  has  :  - 

He  was  fond  of  nothing  more  than  of  wit  and  raillery,  but 
he  was  far  from  successful  in  them. 

Every  one  should  forgive  his  enemy. 

You  and  I  must  correct  our  exercises,  or  we  shall  lose  our 
credit. 

One  or  the  other  of  these  boys  must  give  up  his  claim. 

Every  pupil  may  learn  his  lesson. 

The  multitude,  with  all  their  means  of  instruction,  are 
ignorant. 

The  public  are  invited,  and  we  promise  them  much  pleasure. 

You  and  Laura  must  give  up  your  plan. 

Ethel  and  I  have  made  up  our  minds. 

Neither  of  them  has  any  knowledge  of  this  study. 

Each  of  the  concerts  occurs  on  Monday. 


Lesson  246. 

REPORTS   OF   COMMITTEES. 

At  a  meeting  of  the  Bangor  High  School  Outing  Club 
the  advisability  of  an  excursion,  etc.,  was  referred  to  the 
finance  committee. 


212  LESSONS  TN  LANGUAGE. 

The  report  of  the  committee  might  be  as  follows  :  — 

BANGOR,  ME.,  June  12,  1891. 
To  THE  OUTING  CLUB  OF  THE  BANGOR  HIGH  SCHOOL  : 

The  committee  on  finance,  to  whom  on  the  5th  day  of  the 
present  month  was  referred  the  question  of  a  proposed  excur- 
sion to  Moosehead  Lake,  with  instructions  to  ascertain  the 
probable  cost  of  such  an  excursion,  and  to  report  whether  the 
condition  of  the  finances  of  the  club  is  such  as  to  warrant  this 
expenditure,  respectfully  report, 

That  they  have  given  due  attention  to  the  matter  referred 
to  them,  and  find  that  a  special  car  seating  sixty  persons, 
etc.,  etc. 

Eespectfully  submitted, 

For  the  Committee, 

HAROLD  F.  FRELINGHUYSEN, 

Chairman. 
Copy  and  complete  the  report  above. 


Lesson  247. 
SIMILES. 

Here  are  some  similes :  — 

As  hard  as  a  rock. 
As  sly  as  a  fox. 

Write  ten  similes  containing  as. 
Here  are  more  similes :  — 

It  stirs  the  heart  like  the  sound  of  a  trumpet. 
His  words  fell  soft  like  snow  upon  the  ground. 
He  came  in  smiling  like  a  summer  morning. 

Write  ten  similes  containing  like. 


AGREEMENT.  —  SYNONYMS.  213 

Lesson  248. 

AGREEMENT. 

In  each  of  the  following  sentences  which  form  of  the 
verb  and  of  the  pronoun  is  correct  ?  Write  the  sentences 
as  they  should  be  written. 

The  assembly  [was,  were]  divided  in  [its,  their]  opinions. 

A  circle,  a  square,  or  a  triangle  [pleases,  please]  the  eye 
by  [its,  their]  regularity. 

Neither  Albert  nor  Wallace  [has,  have]  finished  [his,  their] 
task. 

The  British  Parliament  [is,  are]  composed  of  Queen,  Lords, 
and  Commons. 

The  Congress  of  the  United  States  [consists,  consist]  of  a 
Senate  and  a  House  of  Representatives. 

What  case  [has,  have]  each  of  the  nouns  ? 


Lesson  249. 

SYNONYMS. 

Farther  is  used  with  reference  to  distance ;  further  is 
used  with  reference  to  quantity  or  degree. 

Contemptuous  means  expressing  contempt;  contemptible 
means  deserving  contempt. 

Explain  the  difference  in  meaning  between  "  a  con- 
temptuous remark  "  and  "  a  contemptible  remark." 

Copy  these  sentences,  selecting  the  right  word  from 
those  in  brackets:  — 

I  shall  say  nothing  [farther,  further]. 


214  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

What  [farther,  further]  proof  do  you  need  ? 

How  much  [farther,  further]  must  we  go  ? 

Which  is  [further,  farther]  from  here,  New  York  or 
Boston  ? 

Do  you  wish  to  hear  anything  [farther,  further]  on  this 
subject  ? 

Her  face  wore  a  [contemptuous,  contemptible]  expression 
as  she  turned  away  from  those  [contemptuous,  contemptible] 
people. 

His  first  remark  was  a  [contemptible,  contemptuous]  one, 
showing  that  he  considered  the  matter  of  little  consequence ; 
the  second  was  truly  [contemptuous,  contemptible],  and  de- 
served the  scorn  with  which  it  was  treated. 

He  gave  a  [contemptuous,  contemptible]  look  at  the  [con- 
temptuous, contemptible]  sum  offered  for  his  bravery. 

They  expressed  a  very  [contemptuous,  contemptible]  opin- 
ion of  such  baseness. 


Lesson  250. 

ESSAYS 

THE  SENATE  AND  THE  HOUSE  OF  REPRESENTATIVES. 
—  Of  how  many  men  does  the  Senate  consist?  The 
House  of  Representatives  ?  How  many  senators  are  there 
from  each  State?  How  many  representatives  from  each 
State?  How  is  a  senator  chosen?  A  representative? 
How  long  does  each  hold  office  ?  Where  do  these  legis- 
lators meet  ?  What  is  the  difference  between  the  duties 
of  a  senator  and  those  of  a  representative  ? 

A  FOREIGN  STREET.  —  Describe  a  street  in  Japan  or  in 
India,  giving  the  appearance  of  the  houses,  the  shops,  and 
the  people. 


FIGURES   OF  SPEECH.  215 

A  RIVER.  —  Describe  any  river  you  choose,  tracing  it 
from  its  source  to  its  mouth,  and  naming  the  important 
places  along  its  banks. 


Lesson  251. 

DIALOGUE. 

Write  a  conversation  between  two  boys  of  different 
schools  about  a  foot-ball  game  in  which  the  schools  par- 
ticipated. 

Lesson  252. 

FIGURES   OF   SPEECH. 

The  term  figure  signifies  the  form  or  shape  of  an  object. 
The  square,  the  triangle,  the  circle,  etc.,  are  plane  figures. 
One  whose  actions  are  so  great  or  so  remarkable  that  they 
stand  out  before  the  mind  in  a  distinct  form  of  their  own 
is  said  to  make  a  figure  in  the  world.  In  a  similar  way 
an  expression  which  departs  from  ordinary  forms  of  speech 
is  called  a  figure  of  speech,  or  a  rhetorical  figure.  The 
language  in  figures  may  be  said  to  have  a  figurative  use. 
The  simile  is  a  rhetorical  figure  which  we  have  already 
studied. 

1.  She  is  very  pleasant. 

2.  Her  manners  are  like  sunshine. 

3.  The  sunshine  of  her  manners  pleases  all. 

These  sentences  have  much  the  same  meaning.  Which 
of  them  contains  a  simile  ? 


216  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

In  the  third  sentence  we  do  not  say  directly  that  her 
manners  are  like  sunshine,  but  we  lead  our  readers  to 
think  so ;  in  other  words,  we  imply  it.  The  sunshine  of 
her  manners  is  an  implied  comparison. 

An  implied  comparison  is  called  a  metaphor. 

A  metaphor  is  a  rhetorical  figure,  and  its  language  is 
figurative  language. 


Lesson  253. 

CLAUSES   AND    CONNECTIVES. 

The  term  element  in  grammar  means  a  word,  a  phrase,  or 
a  clause  that  has  a  distinct  use  of  its  own.  [See  page  43.] 

Elements  are  co-ordinate  when  they  are  of  the  same 
rank,  or  are  used  in  the  same  way.  When  one  element 
is  used  to  modify  another,  the  element  which  is  modified 
is  called  the  principal  element,  and  the  modifier  is  called 
the  subordinate  element. 

Clauses  may  be  connected  with  others  of  equal  rank,  or 
they  may  be  connected  to  a  word  in  another  clause. 

When  a  clause  is  connected  to  a  word,  it  is  subordinate 
to  that  word,  and  the  clause  in  which  the  modified  word 
stands  is  called  a  principal  clause. 

We  may  give  advice,  but  we  cannot  give  conduct. 

Here  the  two  clauses  are  of  equal  rank,  neither  modify- 
ing the  other.  They  are  called  co-ordinate  clauses. 

When  numbers  are  expressed  in  words,  they  are  usually  left 
unpointed. 


CLAUSES  AND   CONNECTIVES.  217 

Here  the  clause  When  numbers  are  expressed  in  words 
is  connected  to  the  word  unpointed.  It  is  therefore  a  sub- 
ordinate clause,  and  the  clause  they  are  left  unpointed  is 
the  principal  clause. 

A  subordinate  clause  is  always  used  as  though  it  were 
a  noun,  an  adjective,  or  an  adverb ;  and  hence  is  called  a 
noun  clause,  an  adjective  clause,  or  an  adverbial  clause, 
according  to  its  use. 

The  words  most  frequently  used  as  co-ordinate  conjunc- 
tions are  and,  but,  for,  or,  nor,  therefore. 

The  words  most  frequently  used  as  subordinate  conjunc- 
tions are  as,  because,  before,  for,  since,  so,  though,  that,  till, 
until,  unless,  if,  after,  although,  except. 

In  the  following  sentences  what  clauses  are  co-ordinate  ? 
By  what  kind  of  conjunctions  are  they  connected  ?  Which 
are  the  subordinate  clauses?  Which  are  the  subordinate 
conjunctions  ?  Which  are  the  principal  clauses  ? 

Hurry  is  the  mark  of  a  weak  mind,  but  despatch  is  the 
mark  of  a  strong  one. 

The  good  which  men  do  is  not  lost,  though  it  is  often  dis- 
regarded. 

Our  blessings  are  the  least  heeded,  because  they  are  the 
most  common  events  of  life. 

A  clownish  air  is  only  a  small  defect ;  yet  it  is  enough  to 
make  a  man  disagreeable. 

It  is  true  that  we  are  never  too  old  to  be  taught. 

Make  a  proper  use  of  your  time;  for  the  loss  of  it  can 
never  be  repaired. 

War  is  the  law  of  violence,  while  peace  is  the  law  of  love. 

That  which  cannot  be  cured  must  be  endured. 

Eemember  Davy  Crocket's  advice,  Look  before  you  leap. 


218  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

Lesson  254. 

ANALYSIS.  —CO-ORDINATE    CONJUNCTIONS. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences :  — 

1.  I  saw  James  and  John.  2.  I  saw  James  or  John.  3.  I 
did  not  see  James,  but  John.  4.  My  days  and  nights  were 
filled  with  joy  and  peace.  5.  The  fox  ran  across  the  meadow 
and  up  the  hill.  6.  I  and  My  Father  are  one.  7.  Neither  the 
boy  nor  his  father  was  present.  8.  I  will  either  go  immedi- 
ately or  send  some  one.  9.  Both  the  girl  and  her  mother 
denied  all  knowledge  of  the  affair.  10.  Napoleon  commenced 
his  career  a  stranger  by  birth  and  a  scholar  by  charity. 

Co-ordinate  connectives  may  be  indicated  by  the  sign  -f- 
above  them ;  as,  — 

I  saw  James  and  John. 
—  ^^       ---  ~~o~~ 

Lesson  255. 

REPORT   OF   COMMITTEES. 

To  THE  HONORABLE  THE  CITY  COUNCIL  OF  THE 

CITY  OF  ATLANTA: 
The  Joint  Committee  to  which  on  the  4th  day  of  April, 

1889,  was  referred  a  resolution  

respectfully  report, 

That  

Respectfully  submitted, 

For  the  Committee, 


Chairman. 


DESCRIPTION.  219 

Copy  and  complete  the  form  above. 
Write  a  report  of  a  special  committee. 
In  case  the  several  members  of  the  committee  are  to 
sign  the  report,  the  form  of  closing  would  become :  — 

Respectfully  submitted, 

HORACE  ANDERSON, 

Chairman, 

DAVID  STOWELL. 

>  Committee. 
Secretary,    \ 

ANDREW  NICHOLSON, 
MARTIN  VAN  BUREN, 


Lesson  256. 

DESCRIPTION. 

Probably  you  can  now  write  more  extended  and  com- 
plete descriptions  than  you  have  yet  done.  Study  the 
outline  and  the  notes,  and  from  them  write  a  second  de- 
scription of  the  apple. 

THE  APPLE.     [No.  2.] 


OUTLINE 


1.  Kind,  or  species. 

2.  Distribution. 

3.  Growth. 

4.  Description  of  parts. 

5.  Uses. 


NOTES.  —  Fruit  long  cultivated  —  introduced  by  Romans 
into  England  —  wild  crab-apple  tree,  small  and  stunted,  the 
parent  of  all  varieties  —  varieties  numerous  —  grows  best  in 


220  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

colder  parts  of  temperate  zone  —  found  also  on  coasts  of 
Mediterranean  Sea,  in  Arabia,  Persia,  West  Indies  —  propa- 
gated by  grafting,  sometimes  by  layers  and  cuttings  —  requires 
fertile  soil  and  sheltered  place  —  early  and  late  apples  — 
greatest  height  of  tree  thirty  or  forty  feet  —  wood  of  tree 
hard  and  close-grained  —  leaves  broadly  ovate,  woolly  beneath, 
acutely  notched  —  flowers  in  cluster,  large,  white,  rose-colored 
externally,  fragrant  —  fruit  roundish,  narrowest  towards  apex, 
depression  at  each  end,  hard  and  firm  —  color  various,  green, 
yellow,  light  or  dark  red,  streaked,  brown,  and  almost  black 

—  rind  downy,  smooth,  thick  or  thin,  and  almost  transparent 

—  average  size,  three  inches  in  diameter  —  most  valuable  of 
all  fruits  —  wood  useful  —  bark  contains  yellow  dye  —  fruit 
used   for   dessert,   baking,  preserving,  drying,  making  jelly, 
cider,  vinegar,  malic  acid  for  medicinal  purposes. 


wesson  257. 

THE   METAPHOR. 

The  metaphor,  or  implied  comparison,  while  the  most 
striking  and  most  pleasing  of  rhetorical  figures,  is  at  the 
same  time  the  most  common. 

A  day  when  the  sun  shines  may  be  called  a  sunny  day, 
but  we  may  also  say  a  sunny  face. 

The  word  sweet  describes  sugar  and  honey,  but  we  all 
know  what  is  meant  by  a  sweet  child. 

The  words  sunny  and  sweet,  as  they  are  first  used  in  the 
sentences  above,  have  their  literal  sense ;  in  the  second 
use,  they  have  their  figurative  sense. 

A  word  is  used  in  a  literal  sense  when  it  has  its  simplest 
and  most  natural  meaning.^  A  word  has  a  figurative  sense 


PREAMBLE  AND  RESOLUTIONS.  221 

when  it  is  used  to  carry  its  idea  to  an  object  to  which  it 
does  not  naturally  belong. 

We  use  metaphors  in  every-day  speech.  If  a  teacher 
says,  "  John,  you  may  go  to  the  head  of  the  class,"  he  uses 
a  metaphor.  He  means  that  John  may  go  to  that  place 
in  the  class  which  is  the  same  to  the  rest  of  the  class  as 
the  head  is  to  the  rest  of  the  body. 

A  metaphor  is  said  to  be  explained  when  its  meaning  is 
made  clear,  and  the  way  is  pointed  out  in  which  its  figura- 
tive sense  is  derived  from  its  literal  sense.  The  metaphor 
in  the  sentence,  "  John,  you  may  go  to  the  head  of  the 
class,"  has  just  been  explained. 

Explain  the  following  metaphors :  — 

John  is  at  the  foot  of  the  class.  I  have  found  the  root  of 
the  trouble.  This  is  the  ground  of  my  complaint.  Laura, 
you  are  a  jewel.  The  metaphor  is  the  gem  of  figures.  You 
see  the  fruit  of  your  patient  efforts.  There  is  no  cloak  for 
your  sins.  He  is  the  spring  of  all  our  joys. 


Lesson  258. 

PREAMBLE   AND  RESOLUTIONS. 

You  are  a  member  of  a  club  whose  treasurer  has  just 
resigned  his  office  on  account  of  his  removal  to  another 
city.  You  desire  to  show  him  that  you  recognize  the 
value  of  his  services  to  the  club  and  regret  his  departure. 
At  a  meeting  of  the  club,  it  will  be  proper  for  you  to 
introduce  the  following  preamble  and  resolutions :  — 

Whereas,  Our  worthy  and  respected  Treasurer,  "William  F. 
Carrigan,  has  resigned  his  office  in  this  club  and  is  about  to 


222  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

remove  to  Boston  to  enter  the  service  of  the  Old  Colony  Rail- 
road, and  whereas,  his  services  to  this  club  have  been  of 
special  value  to  its  interests  ;  therefore,  be  it 

Kesolved,  That  we  place  on  record  our  appreciation  of  the 
faithfulness,  ability,  and  courtesy  with  which  he  has  dis- 
charged his  duties  as  treasurer  of  this  club,  and  of  that 
pleasant  intercourse  which  has  endeared  him  to  his  fellow- 
members. 

Resolved,  That  we  tender  to  Mr.  Carrigan  our  best  wishes 
for  his  future  success  in  the  important  position  to  which  he 
has  been  called. 

Eesolved,  That  an  engrossed  copy  of  these  resolutions  be 
presented  to  Mr.  Carrigan. 

Copy  these  resolutions  in  the  following  form  as  they 
will  appear  when  presented  to  Mr.  Carrigan :  — 

[Heading.] 
MR.  WM.  F.  CARRIGAN. 

DEAR  FRIEND  : 

At  a  meeting  of , 

held ,  the  following  resolutions  were 

unanimously  adopted : 

Whereas,  Our 


,  President. 

Secretary. 

Lesson  259. 

CORRELATIVE    CONJUNCTIONS. 
Words  used  in  pairs  as  connectives  are  called  correlatives. 
The  following  are  the  principal  correlatives:  — 


COEEELAT1VE    CONJUNCTIONS.  223 

As  —  as :  He  is  as  tall  as  you  are. 

So — as :  He  is  not  so  tall  as  you  are. 

Both  —  and :  He  is  both  talented  and  ambitious. 

Either  —  or :  Either  speak  more  distinctly  or  keep  still. 

If  —  then :  If  you  wish  it,  then  I  will  go. 

Neither  —  nor :  Neither  protestations  nor  entreaties  availed. 

So  —  that :  It  is  so  dark  that  I  can  scarcely  see. 

Such  —  as  :  I  have  selected  such  things  as  I  think  I  need. 

Though  —  yet:  Though  the  boy  is  poor,  yet  he  is  ambitious. 

Whether  —  or :  I  know  not  whether  to  praise  or  to  blame  you. 

Better  —  than :  He  is  better  than  you  suppose. 

Any  adjective  in  the  comparative  degree  may  be  used  as 
a  correlative  of  than. 

The  first  correlative  in  each  set  or  pair  is  either  a  con- 
junction, an  adjective,  or  an  adverb.  If  it  is  a  conjunc- 
tion, it  joins  with  the  second  correlative  in  making  the 
connection. 

If  the  first  correlative  is  an  adjective  or  an  adverb,  it 
performs  its  own  office  as  an  adjective  or  an  adverb,  and 
by  anticipation  adds  emphasis  to  the  correlative  which 
follows. 

For  example,  in  the  sentence,  "He  is  as  tall  as  you  are," 
the  first  as  is  an  adverb  modifying  tall ;  the  second  as  con- 
nects the  clause  you  are  to  as,  which  it  modifies. 

The  second  correlative  in  each  pair  is  a  conjunction. 
[Except  as  after  such  or  same.  See  page  198.] 

Co-ordinate  and  correlative  conjunctions  join  the  same 
cases  of  nouns  and  pronouns,  the  same  modes  and  tenses 
of  verbs,  and  the  same  forms  of  elements ;  i.e.  words  to 
words,  phrases  to  phrases,  and  clauses  to  clauses. 

Use  each  of  the  given  pairs  of  correlatives  in  an  original 
sentence,  and  tell  the  construction  of  each  correlative. 


224  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

Lesson  26O. 

CAUTIONS. 

The  correlative  of  either  should  be  or. 

The  correlative  of  neither  should  be  nor. 

Insert  or  or  nor  in  these  blanks :  — 

Neither  Mary Julia  has  answered  correctly. 

I  shall  either  stay  here go  to  the  country. 

The  poor  boy  had  neither  shoes  -    —  stockings. 

He  knew  neither  me my  father. 

The  sky  looks  as  though  it  would  either  snow rain. 

Do  not  use  such  for  so. 

Such  is  an  adjective,  meaning  of  that  kind ;  while  so  is 
an  adverb  of  degree.  In  the  sentence,  "  I  never  saw  such 
a  flower  before,"  the  meaning  is,  "  I  never  before  saw  a 
flower  of  that  kind."  In  the  sentence,  "  I  never  knew  so 
eloquent  a  man,"  the  adverb  so  is  used  to  express  the 
degree  of  eloquence. 

Be  careful  in  the  use  of  like  and  as. 

If  the  second  part  of  a  comparison  is  expressed  by  a 
noun  or  a  pronoun,  it  may  have  like  before  it ;  but  if  it  is 
expressed  by  a  clause,  it  should  have  as  before  it ;  thus,  — 

Act  like  a  gentleman.          Act  as  a  gentleman  should  act. 

Be  careful  in  the  use  of  the  correlatives  so  —  as  and 
as  —  as.  When  a  negative  is  expressed  or  implied,  use 
so  —  as  ;  thus,  — 

If  Fm  not  so  large  as  you,  you  are  not  so  small  as  I,  and 
not  half  so  spry. 

Write  five  sentences  containing  like,  five  containing  as, 
five  containing  as  —  as,  and  five  containing  so— as. 


CORRELATIVE  CONJUNCTIONS.  225 

Lesson  261. 

FIGURATIVE   USE   OF  ADJECTIVES.  — FADED 
METAPHORS. 

Tell  in  which  of  the  following  expressions  the  adjective 
has  a  literal  and  in  which  a  figurative  use :  — 

A  hard  rock.     A  hard  lesson.    A  hard  winter. 

A  bitter  pill.     A  bitter  disappointment.     A  bitter  experience. 

A  tender  plant.     A  tender  heart.     A  tender  expression. 

A  heavy  responsibility.     A  heavy  weight.     A  heavy  style. 

A  dull  boy.     A  dull  knife.     A  dull  day. 

A  smooth  story.     A  smooth  rogue.     A  smooth  piece  of  ice. 

A  burning  shame.     A  burning  coal.     A  burning  blush. 

Metaphors  so  common  that  we  do  not  regard  them  as 
unusual  expressions  are  sometimes  called  "faded  meta- 
phors." Some  of  the  examples  below  are  of  faded  meta- 
phors. 

We  talk  of  right  conduct,  of  fair  dealing,  of  a  town's 
being  stormed,  of  a  flow  of  words,  of  the  light  of  nature, 
of  plucking  from  the  memory  a  rooted  sorrow,  of  a  torrent 
of  passion,  of  speaking  eyes,  of  the  standing  of  a  pupil  in 
his  class,  and  all  these  are  metaphors.  Explain  them. 

Find  ten  metaphors  in  your  reading  lesson. 

Lesson  262. 

CORRELATIVE   CONJUNCTIONS. 

Correlative  conjunctions  should  be  placed  before  the 
same  parts  of  speech. 

It  is  a  common  error  to  place  one  conjunction  before  a 


226  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

verb  and  the  other  before  another  part  of  speech.  Do  not 
say,  "  This  exercise  not  only  must  be  written  correctly,  but 
also  neatly."  The  sentence  should  be,  "  This  exercise  must 
be  written  not  only  correctly,  but  also  neatly." 

Explain  the  error  in  each  of  these  sentences.  Write 
the  sentences  correctly. 

The  prisoner  will  receive  either  ten  days'  imprisonment  or 
be  fined  several  dollars. 

Let  us  not  only  consider  the  lesson,  but  also  the  application. 

The  street  neither  is  paved  nor  lighted. 

Not  only  should  you  have  given  advice,  but  also  assistance. 

Some  men  are  not  only  deemed  great  because  of  their  own 
ability,  but  also  because  of  the  circumstances  in  which  they 
are  placed. 

God  never  designed  that  any  condition  in  life  should  either 
be  altogether  fortunate,  or  completely  wretched. 

The  poor  child  neither  had  a  home  of  her  own  nor  friends 
to  whom  she  could  go. 

The  man  is  not  only  skilful  himself  in  the  use  of  all  sorts 
of  tools,  but  he  also  understands  how  to  oversee  other  work- 
men. 

He  is  both  distinguished  as  a  teacher  and  a  scholar. 

Our  pleasures  rather  seem  to  spring  from  things  too  low 
than  too  high. 

We  should  both  consider  the  advantages  and  the  disadvan- 
tages of  this  plan. 

Although  much  is  done  for  the  poor  of  New  York,  the 
suffering  among  them  is  yet  great. 

The  house  is  both  well  located  and  has  also  all  the  modern 
improvements. 

Although  there  has  been  little  cold  weather  this  winter,  a 
large  amount  of  ice  has  still  been  gathered. 


I)ESCE1PTION.  227 

Lesson  263. 

DESCRIPTION. 

Study  carefully  the  fine  description  in  this  lesson  of  a 
farm-yard  during  a  storm,  written  by  Washington  Irving. 
After  you  have  done  this,  compare  it  with  the  description 
which  you  wrote  on  the  same  subject,  as  directed  on  page 
156. 

Write  a  letter  to  your  teacher  in  which  you  explain  the 
difference  between  the  two  descriptions. 

A  FARM-YARD  DURING  A  STORM. 

The  place  was  littered  with  wet  straw  that  had  been  kicked 
about  by  travellers  and  stable-boys.  In  one  corner  was  a 
stagnant  pool  of  water.  There  were  several  half-drowned 
fowls  crowded  together  under  a  cart,  among  which  was  a 
miserable,  crest-fallen  rooster,  drenched  out  of  all  life  and 
spirit,  his  drooping  feathers  matted,  as  it  were,  into  a  single 
plume,  along  which  the  water  trickled  from  his  back. 

Near  the  cart  was  a  half-dozing  cow,  chewing  the  cud,  and 
standing  patiently  to  be  rained  on,  with  wreaths  of  vapor 
rising  from  her  reeking  hide.  A  wall-eyed  horse,  tired  of  the 
loneliness  of  his  stable,  was  poking  his  spectral  head  out  of  a 
window,  with  the  rain  dripping  on  it  from  the  eaves.  An 
unhappy  cur,  chained  to  a  dog-house  hard  by,  uttered  some- 
thing every  now  and  then,  between  a  bark  and  a  yelp. 

An  uncomely  servant-girl  tramped  backward  and  forward 
through  the  yard  on  pattens,  looking  as  sulky  as  the  weather 
itself.  Everything,  in  short,  was  comfortless  and  forlorn, 
excepting  a  crew  of  hardened  ducks,  assembled,  like  boon  com- 
panions, round  a  puddle,  and  making  a  riotous  noise  over  their 
liquor. 


228  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

Lesson  264. 

EXTENDED  PARAPHRASE. 

THE  BLACKSMITH'S  SHOP. 

I  could  paint  the  blacksmith's  dingy  shop, 

Its  sign,  a  pillar  of  smoke ; 

The  farm-horse  halt,  the  rough-haired  colt, 

And  the  jade  with  her  neck  in  a  yoke  ; 

The  pony  that  made  to  himself  a  law, 

And  wouldn't  go  under  the  saddle,  nor  draw ! 

The  poor  old  mare  at  the  door-post, 
With  joints  as  stiff  as  its  pegs,  — 
Her  one  white  eye,  and  her  neck  awry,  — 
And  the  thriftless  farmer  that  used  to  stand 
And  curry  her  ribs  with  a  kindly  hand. 

ALICE  GARY. 

Describe  a  blacksmith's  dingy  shop  and  the  blacksmith 
at  work.  Some  of  the  horses  that  are  brought  him  to 
be  shod  are  partially  described  in  the  stanzas  of  this 
lesson.  Describe  them  more  fully. 


Lesson  265. 

RESOLUTIONS. 

The  use  of  a  preamble  to  state  the  occasion  for  the  reso- 
lutions that  follow,  or  the  reason  for  them,  makes  the 
resolutions  more  formal,  but  is  not  always  essential. 

You  are  a  member  of  The  Daily  Doings  Club.     Write 


SIMILES  AND  METAPHORS.  229 

two  resolutions  in  reference  to  the  management  of  the 
club  and  the  use  of  the  periodicals  for  the  coming  year. 

As  secretary  send  these  resolutions  to  the  chairman  of 
the  library  committee,  stating  by  whom  they  were  intro- 
duced, that  they  have  been  referred,  etc. 


Lesson  266. 

SIMILES   AND   METAPHORS. 

Explain  the  similes  and  the  metaphors  in  the  follow- 
ing:— 

111  habits  gather  by  unseen  degrees, 

As  brooks  make  rivers,  rivers  run  to  seas. 

Habit  is  a  cable  ;  we  weave  a  thread  of  it  each  day,  and  at 
last  we  cannot  break  it. 

The  twilight  hours,  like  birds,  flew  by 

As  lightly  and  as  free ; 
Ten  thousand  stars  were  in  the  sky, 

Ten  thousand  in  the  sea. 

Electricity  is  the  soul  of  the  earth. 

But  yonder  comes  the  powerful  king  of  day 
Rejoicing  in  the  east. 

Make  golden  stairways  of  your  weaknesses. 

Kindness  is  the  music  of  good-will  to  men. 

On  the  motionless  branches  of  some  trees,  autumn  berries 
hang,  like  clusters  of  coral  beads. 

Hope  is  like  the  sun,  which,  as  we  journey  towards  it,  casts 
the  shadow  of  our  burden  behind  us. 

Human  experience,  like  the  stern  lights  of  a  ship  at  sea, 
illumine  only  the  paths  which  we  have  passed  over. 


230  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

Lesson  267. 

SIMPLE,   COMPLEX,    AND    COMPOUND    SENTENCES. 

Every  sentence  has  a  subject  and  a  predicate,  or  is  made 
up  of  clauses  which  have  subjects  and  predicates. 

A  simple  sentence  is  one  containing  no  clauses. 
A  compound  sentence  is  one  composed  of  two  or  more  clauses  of 
equal  importance,  no  one  of  which  is  subordinate  to  another ;  as,  — 

How  few  are  our  real  wants,  and  how  vast  our  imaginary 
ones ! 

A  complex  sentence  is  one  containing  a  principal  clause  with  one 
or  more  subordinate  clauses ;  as,  — 

Nobody  talks  much  that  doesn't  say  unwise  things. 

The  clauses  of  a  compound  sentence  may  be  simple  or 
complex. 

What  kind  of  sentence  is  each  of  these  sentences  ? 

Each  day  is  the  scholar  of  yesterday. 

Praise,  like  gold  and  diamonds,  owes  its  value  only  to  its 
scarcity. 

Our  sweetest  songs  are  those  that  tell  of  saddest  thoughts. 

Sow  an  act,  and  you  reap  a  habit;  sow  a  habit,  and  you 
reap  a  character ;  sow  a  character,  and  you  reap  a  destiny. 

What  good  came  of  it  all  at  last  ? 

Goodness  is  the  only  investment  that  never  fails. 

Every  fact  that  is  learned  becomes  a  key  to  other  facts. 

Some  faces  are,  in  their  brightness,  a  prophecy ;  and  some, 
in  their  sadness,  a  history. 

Genius  begins  great  works,  but  labor  alone  finishes  them. 


ESS  ATS.  231 

Lesson  268. 

ESSAYS. 

COAL. 
OUTLINE  :  — 

1.  Where  found. 

...  (  How  proved, 

2.  Composition  •••<.. 

(  How  transformed. 

(  Black, 

3.  Properties  •  •  -  ~j  Hard, 

(  Heat-giving. 

4    jr-   <js  ,  (  Anthracite,  for  heating, 

(  Bituminous,  for  gas. 

{For  warming, 
For  lighting, 
For  cooking, 
For  manufacturing. 

ESSAY. 

Coal  is  found  in  great  abundance  in  the  United  States  and 
in  most  of  the  countries  of  Europe,  especially  in  England, 
Belgium,  and  France. 

It  is  a  mineral  that  has  been  formed  from  the  vegetation 
which  grew  upon  the  earth  thousands  of  years  ago ;  in  many 
kinds  of  coal  the  leaves  of  ferns  and  other  plants  are  fre- 
quently found,  and  sometimes,  too,  the  trunks  of  large  trees. 
As  the  plants  and  trees  fell  and  decayed,  they  became  im- 
bedded in  the  soil,  and  were  covered  with  earth  which 
hardened  to  stone.  There  they  lay  for  ages  after  ages,  until, 
by  heat  and  pressure,  they  became  transformed  into  coal. 

Coal  is  a  black  and  hard  mineral.  Its  most  important 
quality  is  the  readiness  with  which  it  burns,  and  its  power 
of  giving  out  heat  while  burning. 


232  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

The  chief  kinds  of  coal  are  the  hard  anthracite  and  the  soft 
bituminous  ;  the  former  is  used  for  ordinary  heating  purposes ; 
the  latter  for  the  gas  which  it  gives  off  when  heated,  which  is 
conveyed  to  our  houses  to  give  us  light. 

The  benefits  which  we  obtain  from  coal  can  scarcely  be  told. 
It  warms  and  lights  our  dwellings,  and  cooks  our  food.  By 
its  help  we  obtain  steam,  which  works  all  our  machinery,  and 
drives  our  locomotives. 

There  are  many  manufacturing  towns  in  our  country  which 
owe  their  importance,  and  in  many  cases  their  existence,  to 
this  mineral. 

Show  how  the  essay  corresponds  with  its  outline. 


Lesson  269. 

SYNONYMS. 
State  the  distinction  in  meaning  between :  — 

character  and  reputation  idle  and  indolent 

haste  and  hurry  pride  and  vanity 

verse  and  stanza 


Lesson  270. 

RESOLUTIONS. 

The  Natural  History  Society  of  your  school  has  had  an 
excursion,  and  has  received  favors  and  courtesies  from  sev- 
eral persons,  and  also  from  a  society  Avhose  hospitality  it 
enjoyed.  Write  a  series  of  resolutions  in  acknowledgment. 


CONTRAST.  233 

As  secretary  write  to  one  of  the  persons  to  whom  a 
resolution  of  thanks  has  been  voted  and  send  him  a  copy 
of  the  resolution. 

The  Natural  History  Society  of  your  school  has  voted 
to  ask  the  principal  and  the  assistants  in  the  first  room  to 
accompany  the  Society  as  its  guests  upon  its  next  excur- 
sion. Inform  them  of  the  action  of  the  Society. 


Lesson  271. 

CONTRAST. 

By  contrast  we  perceive  things  more  clearly,  as  when  a 
white  surface  is  put  beside  a  black,  a  red  beside  a  blue. 
It  is,  therefore,  a  most  useful  aid  to  composition. 

Here  are  some  examples  of  words  showing  contrast  in 
meaning :  — 

wealth    poverty          labor       rest  work          play 

mirth      sadness  barren     fertile          hot  cold 

acute       dull  polite      rude  cautious     rash 

Write  ten  pairs  of  contrasted  words. 

Point  out  the  contrasts  in  the  following  sentences :  — 

Sink  or  swim,  live  or  die,  I  give  my  hand  and  iny  heart  to 
this  vote. 

He  hath  cooled  my  friends  and  heated  mine  enemies. 

We  see  more  of  the  world  by  travel,  more  of  human  nature 
by  remaining  at  home. 

If  his  jests  are  coarse,  his  arguments  are  strong. 

Goldsmith  has  the  art  of  being  minute  without  tediousness, 


234  LESSONS  IN   LANGUAGE. 

and  general  without  confusion ;  his  language  is  copious  with- 
out exuberance,  exact  without  restraint,  and  easy  without 
weakness. 

He  was  too  judicious  to  commit  faults,  but  not  sufficiently 
vigorous  to  attain  excellence. 

This  land  considered  as  a  pasture,  from  an  animal's  point 
of  view,  must  be  disappointing,  but  to  a  trained  eye,  when 
considered  as  a  landscape,  it  has  a  charm  and  fascination. 

Wide  is  the  gate,  and  broad  is  the  way,  that  leadeth  to 
destruction,  and  many  there  be  which  go  in  thereat,  because 
strait  is  the  gate,  and  narrow  is  the  way,  which  leadeth  unto 
life,  and  few  there  be  that  find  it. 

In  others  we  admire  self  respect,  but  despise  self  esteem. 
Find  in  your  Reader  five  good  examples  of  contrast. 


Lesson  272. 

ANALYSIS.  — COMPOUND   SENTENCES. 
Analyze  the  following  sentences  :  — 

1.  I  will  go,  and  he  may  remain.  2.  He  must  walk,  but  we 
shall  ride.  3.  I  should  have  called  John,  but  he  came  of  his 
own  accord.  4.  I  will  see  his  parents,  or  you  may  speak  to 
them  about  their  son's  advancement.  5.  He  will  not  go,  nor 
will  he  send  his  brother.  6.  All  dread  death,  yet  few  prepare 
for  it.  7.  Reason  frequently  errs,  whereas  instinct  seldom 
makes  a  mistake.  8.  He  has  failed,  yet  he  strives  manfully 
on  against  all  obstacles.  9.  He  would  not  explain,  nor  would 
he  make  any  restitution.  10.  He  went  a  private  and  returned 
a  captain. 


PUNCTUATION.  —  THE  SEMICOLON.  235 

In  written  analysis  of  compound  sentences  the  separate 
clauses,  if  desired,  may  be  enclosed  in  oblique  brackets ; 

thus,  — 

+ 
(I  will  go),  and  (he  may  remain.) 

=  xxxxxxx.  =  c^xx^occcooooo- 

The  marking  of  each  clause  is  all  that  really  is  required, 
however;  as  the  eye  readily  perceives  the  subjects  and 
predicates  which  indicate  the  clauses ;  thus,  — 

+ 
He  must  walk,  but  we  shall  ride. 


Lesson  273. 

PUNCTUATION.— THE   SEMICOLON. 

When  as,  viz.,  e.g.,  i.e.,  to  wit,  thus,  namely,  or  that  is, 
introduces  an  example,  a  semicolon  should  be  placed  before 
and  a  comma  after  it. 

When  the  clauses  of  a  compound  sentence  contain  commas, 
they  should  be  separated  by  the  semicolon;  as, — 

New  York  was  the  seat  of  the  government;  and  as  Wash- 
ington travelled  thither  from  his  home  in  Virginia,  he  had 
enthusiastic  greetings  everywhere. 

NOTE.  —  If  the  clauses  of  a  compound  sentence  are 
short  and  closely  connected,  they  may  be  separated  by  a 
comma  even  though  they  contain  commas. 

Complete  the  punctuation  of  the  following  sentences :  — 

Toward  the  source  or  beginning  of  a  river  is  up  stream  and 
toward  the  opposite  end  or  mouth  is  down  stream. 


236  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

The  temperate  countries  of  the  world  form  two  temperate 
zones  the  northern  extends  from  the  Tropic  of  Cancer  to  the 
Arctic  Circle  the  southern  from  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn  to  the 
Antarctic  Circle. 

The  town  pump  once  made  a  speech  and  this  is  what  it 
said :  Cold  water  boys  is  the  best  drink  it  purifies  everything 
preserves  everything  and  refreshes  everything  drink  it  and 
you  will  be  healthier  and  happier  than  if  you  drank  any  other 
drink. 

When  a  writer  reasons  we  look  only  for  clearness  when  he 
describes  we  expect  embellishment  when  he  decides  or  relates 
we  desire  plainness  and  simplicity. 

The  point  on  the  horizon  at  which  the  sun  rises  is  called 
the  East,  at  which  it  sets  the  West. 

Eunice  has  five  cents  Cora  has  seven  cents  which  has  the 
more  money  Eunice  or  Cora  ? 


Lesson  274. 

ESSAY.  — ICE. 

Write  an  essay  about  ice,  by  answering  the  following 
questions :  — 

1.  What  is  ice  ?  2.  What  different  forms  does  it  take  ? 
3.  What  is  an  icicle  ?  4.  What  is  hail  ?  5.  What  is  sleet  ? 
6.  What  is  a  glacier  ?  7.  Whafc  is  an  iceberg  ?  8.  Of  what 
use  is  ice  ?  9.  Where  do  we  get  it  ?  10.  How  is  it  gathered  ? 
11.  Is  there  any  country  where  there  is  no  ice  ?  12.  When 
water  freezes,  does  it  expand  or  contract  ?  13.  What  causes 
water-pipes  to  burst  in  very  cold  weather?  14.  Describe  a 
winter  scene  where  boys  and  girls  are  having  great  sport  upon 
the  ice. 


A   COMPARISON   OF  STYLE.  237 

Lesson  275. 

A  COMPARISON   OF   STYLE. 

Compare  the  two  following  passages.  Observe  that  the 
use  of  contrast  has  made  the  second  clearer  and  more 
forcible  than  the  first.  Point  out  the  contrasts  in  tho 
second. 

Lincoln  and  Garfield  suffered  the  same  fate,  though  Lincoln 
died  at  the  close  of  a  heavy  war,  while  the  nation  was  at 
peace  at  the  time  of  Garfield's  death. 

Garfield' s  terrible  fate  came  upon  him  instantly,  striking 
him  down  in  the  prime  of  life.  Helpless,  bleeding,  and 
wounded,  he  awaited  many  long  weeks  of  torture,  and,  at  last, 
the  silence  of  the  grave. 

Lincoln  fell  at  the  close  of  a  mighty  struggle,  in  which  the 
passions  of  men  had  been  deeply  stirred.  Garfield  was  slain 
in  a  day  of  peace,  when  brother  had  been  reconciled  to  brother, 
and  when  anger  and  hate  had  been  banished  from  the  land. 

His  terrible  fate  was  upon  him  in  an  instant.  One  moment 
he  stood  erect,  strong,  confident  in  the  years  stretching  out 
peacefully  before  him.  The  next  he  lay  wounded,  bleeding, 
helpless,  doomed  to  weary  weeks  of  torture,  to  silence,  and  the 
grave.  JAMES  G.  ELAINE. 

• 
Lesson  276. 

THE   ADJECTIVE   CLAUSE. 

1.  A  rich  man  is  envied. 

2.  A  man  who  is  rich  is  envied. 

Is   the  first  sentence   simple,  complex,  or  compound? 


238  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

What  is  the  second  ?  What  adjective  element  is  there  in 
the  first  sentence  ?  What  does  it  modify  ?  What  adjec- 
tive element  is  there  in  the  second  sentence  ?  What  does 
it  modify  ?  What  kind  of  clause  is  who  is  rich  ? 

A  clause  used  as  an  adjective  is  called  an  adjective  clause. 

Point  out  the  adjective  clauses  in  these  sentences,  and 
tell  what  noun  each  clause  modifies  :  — 

Those  berries  that  you  have  gathered  are  poisonous.  [  Those 
berries  are  poisonous  is  the  principal  clause,  that  you  have  gath- 
ered is  the  subordinate  clause.  That  you  have  gathered  is  an 
adjective  clause,  and  modifies  berries.'] 

A  man  that  gives  to  the  poor  is  called  charitable. 

The  lesson  that  I  have  given  you  will  require  study. 

He  that  has  much  spirit  makes  most  of  his  life. 

They  are  not  the  best  students  that  are  most  dependent  on 
books. 

The  happiest  man  is  he  that  has  no  thought  for  himself. 

The  man  that  has  only  himself  to  please  finds  himself  a 
hard  master. 

The  connectives  in  the  sentences  are  all  relative  pro- 
nouns. Point  them  out.  What  do  they  connect  ?  What 
are  their  antecedents  ?  Of  what  gender,  person,  and  num- 
ber is  each  relative?  [Look  at  the  antecedent  to  deter- 
mine this.]  Of  what  case  is  each  relative?  [Look  at  the 
subordinate  clause  to  learn  this.] 

An  adjective  clause  may  be  connected  to  the  noun  which 
it  modifies  by  a  conjunctive  adverb. 

Name  the  adjective  clause,  the  conjunctive  adverb,  and 
the  modified  noun  in  the  sentences  below :  — 

The  reason  why  I  came  is  understood. 

The  time  when  we  are  to  start  has  not  been  fixed. 


PUNCTUATION.  239 

The  land  wherein  they  dwell  is  fruitful. 
He'knows  the  subject  whereof  he  speaks. 
The  place  whereon  thou  standest  is  holy  ground. 
He  found  the  place  where  it  was  written. 

Sometimes  the  connective  is  omitted.  Supply  the  con- 
nectives in  the  sentences  which  follow.  Tell  the  adjective 
clause  and  the  noun  modified. 

'Tis  education  forms  the  common  mind,     [which] 
Fm.  monarch  of  all  I  survey. 
The  book  you  mention  must  be  interesting. 
We  must  make  the  best  bargain  we  can. 
The  friends  he  loved  have  departed. 

The  first  thing  a  man  has  to  do  in  this  world  is  to  turn  his 
possibilities  into  powers. 

The  maps  you  have  drawn  are  very  well  done. 


Lesson  277. 

PUNCTUATION.  — THE   ADJECTIVE   PHRASE 
AND   CLAUSE. 

A  phrase  or  clause  is  restrictive  "when  it  limits  the  use 
of  the  noun  or  pronoun  with  which  it  is  connected,  and 
cannot  be  omitted  without  destroying  the  sense  ;  as,  — 

No  Yice-President  who  had  become  President  has  died 
during  his  term  of  office. 

The  tomb  of  Washington  is  at  Mt.  Vernon. 

A  phrase  or  clause  is  explanatory  when  it  gives  some 
additional  thought  or  adds  a  description ;  as,  — 

The  Governor,  who  is  the  chief  executive  officer  of  a  state, 
has  the  title  of  "His  Excellency." 


240  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

Having  approved  the  plan  the  king  put  it  into  execution. 

An  adjective  phrase  beginning  with  a  preposition  is 
restrictive.  An  explanatory  adjective  phrase  is  really 
parenthetical. 

An  adjective  phrase  or  clause,  unless  restrictive,  should  be 
separated  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  commas. 

Complete  the  punctuation  of  the  following  sentences :  — 

Awkward  in  his  person  James  was  ill-calculated  to  command 
respect. 

Edward  apprehensive  of  danger  to  the  province  put  it  in  a 
position  of  defence. 

Prom  the  summit  of  Vesuvius  darkly  visible  in  the  distance 
shot  a  pale  meteoric  livid  light. 

Our  Western  prairies  stretching  as  far  as"  the  eye  can  reach 
and  covered  with  tall  grass  moving  with  a  wave-like  motion 
in  the  wind  have  often  been  compared  to  seas. 

The  United  States  of  America  is  the  largest  and  most  suc- 
cessful republic  in  the  world  educating  its  citizens  so  that  they 
may  be  able  to  make  good  laws  and  choose  good  rulers. 

Shakespeare  who  lived  in  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth  was 
the  greatest  of  all  the  English  poets. 

The  messengers  who  brought  the  news  of  our  army's  defeat 
were  immediately  seized  and  imprisoned. 

Happy  is  the  man  that  findeth  wisdom  and  the  man  that 
getteth  understanding  length  of  days  is  in  her  right  hand  and 
in  her  left  hand  riches  and  honor  her  ways  are  ways  of  pleas- 
antness and  all  her  paths  are  peace. 

The  stars  which  twinkle  are  all  distant  suns  shining  like 
our  sun  with  their  own  light  those  which  do  not  twinkle  are 
worlds  like  our  earth  and  are  rolling  with  it  about  our  sun  at 
various  distances  they  are  called  planets  the  sun  with  its 
planets  including  the  earth  is  called  the  solar  system. 


ANALYSIS.  —  ADJECTIVE  CLAUSES.  241 

Lesson  278. 

ANALYSIS  — ADJECTIVE   CLAUSES. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences  :  — 

1.  The  man  who  was  sick  has  returned.  2.  The  soldier, 
whose  arm  was  amputated,  has  not  returned  to  the  army. 
3.  The  lady  whom  we  just  met  is  my  cousin's  wife.  4.  Those 
four  books  which  were  lying  in  the  desk  were  dictionaries. 

5.  The   birds   which  we   now   hear   are    called    gold-finches. 

6.  Did  you  see  the  carriage  and  harness  that  were  exhibited 
at  the  fair  ?     7.  Who  that  respects  himself  would  do  such 
things  ?     8.  I  will  take  such  things  as  are  brought.     9.  I  will 
take  such  things  as  you  bring.     10.  The  grave  where  he  is 
buried  is   in   yonder   churchyard.      11.   We  knew   the   very 
minute  when  he  left  the  city.     12.  We  were  present  on  the 
day  when  the  assembly  met.     13.  I  will  see  whoever  comes. 
14.  I  will  do  whatever  he  orders. 

A  subordinate  connective  is  indicated  by  the  sign  of 
inequality,  >  or  <,  placed  above  it,  with  the  opening 
turned  toward  the  principal  element ;  thus,  — 




The  man  who  was  sick  has  returned. 

. cccocoooooooco 


Lesson  279. 

FIGURATIVE   AND   COMMONPLACE   STATEMENTS. 

• 

The  beauty  of  figurative  language  must  not  be  spoiled  by 
the  addition  of  a  commonplace  statement. 


242  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

The  thirsty  earth  absorbed  the  gentle  shower,  the  flowers 
raised  their  drooping  heads,  and  all  nature  seemed  to  rejoice 
in  this  timely  bounty  of  heaven,  but  the  streets  were  muddy. 

The  commonplace  clause  at  the  end  of  this  sentence  is 
in  strange  and  unpleasant  contrast  with  the  figurative 
language  that  precedes. 

Show  that  the  sentences  below  are  faulty  in  the  same 
respect. 

The  stained-glass  window  admits  a  light  upon  the  pulpit  as 
soft  and  mellow  as  moonlight,  and  it  cost  $300. 

How  sweetly  the  moonlight  sleeps  upon  this  bank,  and  how 
dry  the  grass  looks. 

He  was  a  Napoleon  in  battle,  and  he  was  thirty  years  old. 

Concerts  and  lectures,  like  poetry  and  periodicals,  tend  to 
relieve  the  mind  and  instruct  it,  and  Mr.  Shaw  will  deliver  his 
illustrated  lecture  next  Wednesday  evening. 

Calamities  came  upon  him  like  the  inundations  of  the  Nile ; 
but  they  only  strengthened  his  fixed  determination  to  do  right 
whatever  might  happen,  and  he  now  began  to  learn  stenog- 
raphy. 

Lesson  28O. 

PUNCTUATION.  — ENUMERATION  OF  PARTICULARS. 

When  parts  are  named  and  placed  in  apposition  with  a 
word  denoting  the  whole,  we  have  an  enumeration  of 
particulars. 

In  an  enumeration  of  particulars,  if  the  parts  are  sepa- 
rated from  each  other  by  commas,  they  should  be  separated 
from  the  general  term  by  a  semicolon;  but  if  the  parts  are 
separated  by  a  semicolon,  they  should  be  separated  from 
the  general  term  by  a  colon. 


PUNCTUATION.  243 

Study  the  punctuation  of  these  three  sentences.  Ex- 
ample 1  is  not  in  the  form  of  an  enumeration  of  particulars, 
and  the  punctuation  is  that  of  the  series. 

1.  The  New  England  States  are  Maine,  New  Hampshire, 
Vermont,  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  and  Connecticut. 

2.  There  are  six  New  England  states ;  Maine,  New  Hamp- 
shire, Vermont,  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  and  Connecticut. 

3.  New  England  has  six  states  :  Maine,  which  is  noted  for 
its  ship-building,  its  trade  in  lumber  and  ice,  and  its  fine  har- 
bors ;  New  Hampshire,  remarkable  for  its  fine  scenery ;  Ver- 
mont, chiefly  a  grazing  country,  but  noted  also  for  its  quarries 
of  marbles,  soapstone,  and   slate;   Massachusetts,  the   third 
state  in  the  Union  in  the  value  of  its  manufactures ;  Rhode 
Island,  the  smallest  state  in  the  Union,  but  noted  for  its  manu- 
factures of  cotton,  wool,  iron,  and  jewelry;  and  Connecticut, 
which  is  noted  for  a  greater  variety  of  manufactures  than  any 
other  state. 

Punctuate  these  sentences :  — 

North  America  has  three  principal  mountain  ranges  the 
Rocky  Mountains  the  California  Mountains  and  the  Appalach- 
ian Mountains. 

The  earth  has  two  motions  a  daily  rotation  upon  its  axis 
and  a  yearly  revolution  around  the  sun. 

There  are  four  seasons  in  temperate  climates  spring  summer 
autumn  and  winter. 

Mankind  has  been  divided  into  five  different  races  the  White 
or  Caucasian  Race  named  from  the  Caucasus  Mountains  the  Yel- 
low or  Mongolian  Race  which  includes  the  Chinese  and  Japan- 
ese the  Red  or  American  Race  which  includes  the  American 
Indians  the  Black  or  Ethiopian  Race  which  inhabits  the  inte- 
rior of  Africa  and  the  Brown  or  Malayan  Race  which  includes 
all  the  barbarous  inhabitants  of  the  world  besides. 


244  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

Lesson  281. 

MIXED   METAPHORS. 
She  came  steaming  into  the  room,  full  sail,  like  a  whirlwind. 

Here  the  movement  is  compared  to  a  steamboat,  a  sail- 
ing-vessel, and  a  whirlwind,  all  in  the  same  sentence. 

Metaphors  are  said  to  be  mixed  when  differing  metaphors 
are  combined  in  the  same  sentence.  A  sentence  which 
contains  mixed  metaphors  is  neither  clear  nor  forcible,  and 
should  be  carefully  avoided. 

Wherein  are  the  following  figures  faulty?  Improve 
them. 

To  take  arms  against  a  sea  of  troubles. 

Her  cheerful  disposition,  the  jewel  of  her  character,  was  the 
chain  which  bound  the  family  together. 

These  are  the  first  fruits  of  my  long  study,  at  last  unearthed 
and  brought  to  light. 

Wild  fancies  gambolled  unbridled  through  his  brain,  and 
swept  away  all  his  firm  resolves. 

Idleness  is  the  rust  of  the  soul  and  the  moth  of  destruction. 

The  love  of  money,  the  root  of  all  evil,  lays  a  snare  for  the 
feet  of  man. 

Lesson  282. 

BOOK   REVIEW. 

1.  Tell  who  wrote  the  book.    When.    Where.    Why. 

2.  Give  an  outline  of  its  plan. 

3.  What  are  some  of  its  finest  passages  ? 

4.  What  impression  do  you  retain  from  its  reading? 

5.  What  advice  do  you  give  others  as  to  reading  it  ? 


NOTICES.  245 

Lesson  283. 

NOTICES. 

It  is  the  duty  of  the  secretary  of  a  society  or  of  a  com- 
mittee to  issue,  or  post,  or  serve  the  notices  of  its  meetings. 

As  secretary,  write  a  notice  of  a  special  meeting  of  The 
Daily  Doings  Club. 

By  the  direction  of  the  chairman  of  the  committee  on 
fines  and  assessments  write  a  notice  to  the  members  of  the 
committee  to  attend  a  meeting.  Imitate  the  following 
form :  — 

DEPARTMENT  OF  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS. 

OFFICE  OF  SECRETARY. 
DBS  MOINES,  IOWA,  Oct.  28,  1891. 
DEAR  SIR  : 

You  are  respectfully  requested  to  attend  a  meeting  of  the 
Finance  Committee  at  the  office  of  the  Superintendent,  on 
Friday,  Oct.  30,  1891,  at  12  o'clock  M. 

By  order  of  the  Chairman, 

EUGENE  K.  FIELD, 

Secretary  of  School  Committee. 
WM.  R.  JONES. 


Lesson  284. 

STORY  TO   BE   IMITATED. 

THE  WASP  AND  THE  BEE. 

A  wasp  met  a  bee  that  was  just  buzzing  by, 
And  he  said,  "  Little  cousin,  can  you  tell  me  why 
You  are  loved  so  much  better  by  people  than  I  ? 


246  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

"  My  back  shines  as  bright  and  as  yellow  as  gold, 
And  iny  shape  is  most  elegant,  too,  to  behold ! 
And  yet,  for  all  that,  no  one  likes  me,  Pm  told." 

"  Ah,  cousin,"  the  bee  said,  "  'tis  all  very  true ; 

But  were  I  even  half  as  much  mischief  to  do, 

Then,  Fm  sure,  they  would  love  me  no  better  than  you. 

"You  have  a  fine  shape  and  a  delicate  wing, 

And  they  say  you  are  handsome,  but  then  there's  one  thing 

They  can  never  put  up  with,  and  that  is  your  sting. 

"My  coat  is  quite  homely  and  plain,  as  you  see, 
Yet  nobody  ever  is  angry  with  me, 
Because  Fin  a  harmless  and  diligent  bee." 

What  is  the  lesson  to  be  drawn  from  this  story  ?  What 
proverb  could  you  use  as  its  title  ? 

Write  a  somewhat  similar  conversation  between  a  hawk 
and  a  hen. 

Lesson  285. 

PERIODIC,   LOOSE,   AND   BALANCED   SENTENCES. 

Sentences  having  one  or  more  places  at  which  a  period  could  be 
placed  and  the  remainder  of  the  sentence  omitted  are  called  loose 
sentences. 

Sentences  in  which  the  sense  could  not  be  taken  as  complete  until 
the  end  of  the  sentence  is  reached  are  called  periodic  sentences. 

All  sentences  are  either  periodic  or  loose.  The  language 
of  conversation  is  largely  composed  of  loose  sentences. 

Sentences  whose  clauses  are  constructed  on  the  same  plan  are 
called  balanced  sentences  ;  as,  — 

The  periodic  sentence  is  the  more  forcible  and  formal;  the 
loose,  the  more  clear  and  natural. 


PUNCTUATION.-— ADVERBIAL  ELEMENTS.        247 

Below  are  six  sentences,  three  of  which  are  loose,  three 
periodic.  Which  are  periodic  and  which  loose  ?  Change 
the  periodic  sentences  into  loose  sentences,  and  the  loose 
sentences  into  periodic. 

1.  The  Sphinx  is  a  figure  of  a  monster  having  the  head  of 
a  woman  and  the  body  of  a  winged  lion. 

2.  Hans  Andersen,  a  Danish  author  of  this  century,   has 
written  some  very  fine  stones  for  children. 

3.  Napoleon  was  born  in  1769  on  the  island  of  Corsica,  and 
he  died  in  1821,  a  prisoner  on  the  island  of  St.  Helena. 

4.  The  governing  of  the  Indians,  the  taking  of  the  census, 
the  selling  of  lands  to  immigrants,  and  the  giving  of  patents 
for  inventions,  are  duties  of  the  officers  of  the  Interior  Depart- 
ment. 

5.  The  Thiergarten  is  a  large  park  of  Berlin,  situated  along 
the  banks  of  the  Spree,  two  miles  long  by  a  mile  in  width, 
with  many  fine  trees,  well-kept  drives,  and  beautiful  lakes. 

6.  No  picture  is  better  known  than  Leonardo  da  Vinci's 
"Last  Supper,"  millions  of  copies  of  which  have  been  circu- 
lated in  engravings,  oil  paintings,  and  photographs. 

Find  in  your  Reader  five  periodic  sentences,  five  loose 
sentences,  and  five  balanced  sentences. 


Lesson  286. 

PUNCTUATION.  — ADVERBIAL   ELEMENTS. 

Adverbial  phrases  or  clauses,  unless  short  and  closely 
connected  to  the  word  which  they  modify,  should  be  set  off 
from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  the  comma  ;  as,  — 

In  old  times,  kings  claimed  to  rule  by  Divine  right. 


248  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

At  Sheffield,  knives,  forks,  scissors,  and  cutlery  of  all  kinds 
are  made. 

Complete  the  punctuation  of  the  following  sentences:  — 

In  countries  on  the  seacoast  men  engage  in  fishing  where 
there  are  fine  forests  in  lumbering  and  where  there  are  beds  of 
stone  or  ores  in  quarrying  and  mining. 

On  a  frosty  morning  you  may  see  the  panes  of  glass  covered 
with  landscapes  mountains  lakes  and  trees  blended  in  a  beauti- 
ful fairy  picture. 

By  the  climate  of  a  country  we  mean  its  degree  of  heat  or 
cold  moisture  or  dryness  healthfulness  or  unhealthfulness. 

On  leaving  the  torrid  zone  tropical  plants  gradually  disap- 
pear instead  of  the  palm  and  banana  trees  we  find  the  beech 
oak  maple  and  pine. 

Lesson  287. 

ANALYSIS.  — ADVERBIAL   CLAUSES. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences :  — 

1.  I  will  go  when  you  return.  2.  He  has  just  gone  where 
the  climate  is  more  agreeable  to  him.  3.  I  heard  groans  as  I 
approached  the  house.  4.  When  you  hear  his  footsteps,  open 
the  door.  5.  Will  he  come  if  the  rain  ceases  ?  6.  He  will 
come  unless  the  train  is  delayed.  7.  The  tired  soldiers  stopped 
wherever  night  overtook  them.  8.  We  must  hasten,  as  the 
darkness  is  increasing  very  rapidly.  9.  The  birds  flew  off  as 
soon  as  we  came  in  sight.  10.  I  will  go,  provided  you  remain. 
11.  He  hurried  because  the  storm  increased.  12.  We  gave 
up  the  chase,  for  the  sun  was  fast  sinking  behind  the  western 
hills. 

I  will  go  when  you  return. 

—  --ocoooco  - —  :xx?cxxx?' 


USE  OF  THE  PRESENT  TENSE.  249 

Lesson  288. 

USE  OF  THE  PRESENT  TENSE. 

In  making  a  statement  of  a  present  fact,  or  of  anything 
that  is  true  at  all  times,  the  present  tense  should  be  used. 

For  example,  in  the  sentence:  "We  were  told  to  learn 
what  was  the  capital  of  each  state  in  the  Union,"  we  refer 
to  the  present  capitals  of  the  states,  and  the  sentence 
should  be :  "  We  were  told  to  learn  what  is  the  capital 
of  each  state  in  the  Union." 

Explain  why  each  of  the  following  sentences  is  incorrect. 
Write  it  correctly. 

We  learned  in  our  lesson  yesterday  that  water  was  composed 
of  hydrogen  and  oxygen. 

I  did  not  understand  what  your  name  was.    • 

No  one  in  the  class  could  tell  how  Popocatapetl  was  spelled. 

The  building  we  have  just  passed  was  the  High  School. 

The  lecturer  began  with  the  axiom  that  a  straight  line  was 
the  shortest  line  between  two  poiuts. 

Did  you  discover  in  your  work  that  practice  made  perfect  ? 

Every  child  has  been  disappointed  when  informed  that 
"  Robinson  Crusoe  "  was  not  a  true  story. 

Were  you  never  told  that  the  sun  and  the  moon  could  not 
both  shine  at  the  same  time  ? 


Lesson  289. 

SYNONYMS. 

State  the  distinction  in  meaning  between  :  — 
delightful  and  delicious  hope  and  expect 

common  and  mutual  qualified  and  competent 

Use  each  of  the  foregoing  words  in  a  sentence. 


250  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

Lesson  290. 

COPY   OF   RECORD. 

A  portion  of  the  minutes  of  a  secretary  will  often  be 
desired  for  a  particular  use,  and  he  will  be  called  upon  for 
the  part  of  his  records  concerning  some  special  action. 

This  item  from  the  minutes  may  be  given  in  the  follow- 
ing form  :  — 

PROVIDENCE,  R.L, 

IN  SCHOOL  COMMITTEE, 
Nov.  28,  1890. 

Voted,  That  "  The  Leading  Facts  of  American  History/7  by 
D.  H.  Montgomery,  be  used  in  the  successive  classes  beginning 
the  study  of  United  States  history  from  this  date. 
Attest : 

HENRY  B.  BOSE,  Secretary. 

Another  form  might  be  :  — 

At  a  Eegular l  Meeting  of  the  Literary  and  Social  Club,  held 
Jan.  8,  1889,  on  motion  of  William  Hendry,2  it  was 

Besolved,3  That 

Attest : 

REGINALD  AVERY,  Sec'y. 

1  Regular,  special.  2  Seconded  by  Owen  Merideth. 

3  Resolved,  ordered,  voted. 

Give  a  copy  of  minutes  certifying  that  a  contract  for 
building  a  school-house  has  been  awarded  to . 

Give  a  copy  of  minutes  showing  that  a  prize  for  excel- 
lence in  reading  was  awarded  to by  the  judges  selected 

to  make  the  award. 


PUNCTUATION.  251 

Lesson  291. 

DESCRIPTION. 

If  you  should  make  a  journey  to  Africa,  what  would 
you  expect  to  see  there  ?    Describe  some  of  the  scenes. 
Describe  some  picture  which  you  have  seen. 

Lesson  292. 

PUNCTUATION. 

Observe  the  use  of  the  colon  and  semicolon  in  this  exer- 
cise. Write  the  exercise  from  dictation. 

We  have  two  sets  of  teeth :  — 

1.    Temporary.  2.   Permanent. 

Many  grammarians  divide  grammar  into  four  parts :  — 
1.    Orthography.  2.    Etymology. 

3.    Syntax.  4.    Prosody. 

We  ought  to  study  diligently  for  the  following  reasons : 
1.  By  doing  so 'we  strengthen  our  powers;  2.  We  gain  knowl- 
edge that  will  be  of  great  service ;  3.  We  please  our  friends ; 
4.  We  gain  the  approval  of  our  own  conscience. 


Lesson  293. 

CLIMAX. 

In  loose  sentences  the  several  items  of  the  general  thought 
may  be  so  arranged  as  to  increase  in  importance  to  the  end. 


252  LE8SONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

Such  an  arrangement  of  a  sentence  or  paragraph  is  called  a 
climax. 

Rearrange  the  following  loose  sentences  so  that  the 
several  parts  shall  stand  in  order  of  importance.  .  Needful 
changes  in  phraseology  may  be  made. 

For  want  of  a  horse  the  rider  was  lost,  for  want  of  a  shoe 
the  horse  was  lost,  for  want  of  a  nail  the  shoe  was  lost. 

Drops  make  the  clouds,  the  rain  supplies  the  rivers,  the 
clouds  send  forth  the  rain,  and  the  rivers  make  the  great 
ocean. 

A  Scotch  mist  becomes  a  shower,  and  a  shower,  a  flood; 
and  a  storm,  a  tempest ;  and  thunder  and  lightning,  heaven- 
quake  and  earthquake ;  and  a  tempest,  thunder  and  lightning. 

Crimes  lead  to  the  gallows,  but  vices  lead  to  crimes,  and 
indolence  leads  to  vices. 

Angels  would  be  gods,  and  men  would  be  angels. 

She  is  soft,  flexible,  pitiful,  mild ;  thou,  remorseless,  rough, 
stern,  obdurate,  flinty. 

But  when  shall  we  be  stronger  ?  Will  it  be  when  we  are 
totally  disarmed  ?  Will  it  be  the  next  year,  or  the  next 
week  ?  Will  it  be  when  a  British  guard  is  stationed  in  every 
house  ? 

The  greatness  of  a  people  is  constituted  by  the  love  of  law, 
the  love  of  knowledge,  the  regard  for  our  neighbor's  rights 
and  feelings,  the  desire  to  do  justice,  the  respect  for  man  as 
man. 

The  great  globe  itself,  yea,  all  which  it  inherit,  the  cloud- 
capped  towers,  the  solemn  temples,  the  gorgeous  palaces,  shall 
dissolve. 

Ambition  creates  seditions,  wars,  discords,  hatred,  and 
shyness. 

A  virtuous  and  pious  life  will  prove  the  best  preparation  for 
immortality  and  death. 


JVOUN   CLAUSES.  253 

Lesson  294. 

NOUN   CLAUSES. 

A  clause,  like  a  noun,  may  be  the  subject  or  the  com- 
plement of  a  verb,  the  object  of  a  preposition,  or  in  appo- 
sition with  a  noun  or  pronoun. 

"  I  will  try  "  has  wrought  wonders.  [Noun  clause  used  as 
subject.] 

Shakespeare  says,  "  All  the  world's  a  stage."  [Noun  clause 
used  as  object.] 

The  fear  was  that  the  bridge  would  give  way.  [Noun  clause 
used  as  predicate  nominative.] 

The  fact  that  the  earth  is  round  is  well  known.  [Noun 
clause  used  in  apposition  with  a  noun.] 

It  is  strange  that  you  are  so  often  late.  [Noun  clause  used 
iu  apposition  with  a  pronoun.] 

Much  depends  upon  how  he  makes  his  criticisms.  [Noun 
clause  used  as  the  object  of  a  preposition.] 

A  noun  clause  used  as  subject  is  usually  introduced  by 
that  or  whether,  which  in  such  use  may  be  called  intro- 
ductory conjunctions.  A  verb  having  a  clause  as  subject 
is  in  the  third  person,  singular  number. 

Which  clauses  in  the  following  sentences  are  noun 
clauses?  Give  the  relation  of  each  noun  clause  to  the 
rest  of  the  sentence.  Parse  the  connective  or  the 
introductory  word :  — 

That  you  do  not  understand  this  is  surprising. 
It  is  known  that  the  planets  are  wandering  stars,  and  that 
they  receive  their  light  from  the  sun. 
You  forget  that  she  is  our  cousin. 


254  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

"  Honesty  is  the  best  policy  "  is  a  common  maxim. 

That  a  clause  may  be  used  as  a  subject  sometimes  puzzles 
pupils. 

It  is  doubtful  if  he  will  return. 

This  is  my  commandment,  that  ye  love  one  another. 

No  one  can  tell  how  the  prisoner  made  his  escape. 

Whoever  did  that  is  a  rascal. 

The  certainty  that  war  must  come  is  growing  more  manifest. 

Her  favorite  maxim  was,  "  Wilful  waste  makes  woful  want." 

Change  "  Where  there's  a  will  there's  a  way "  to  "  Where 
there  is  a  will  you  can  find  a  way." 

My  opinion  is  that  poor  memory  is  caused  by  poor  attention. 
>  The  belief  that  electricity  is  the  coming  motor  is  now  almost 
universal. 

Lesson  295. 

PUNCTUATION.  —  NOUN   CLAUSES. 

If  a  noun  clause  used  as  the  subject  of  a  sentence  is  quite 
long,  contains  commas,  or  ends  with  a  verb,  it  should  be 
followed  by  a  comma  ;  as,  — 

Those  Presbyterian  members  of  the  House  of  Commons  who 
had  many  years  before  been  expelled  by  the  army,  returned  to 
their  seats. 

A  new  feeling  of  what  is  due  to  the  ignorant,  the  poor,  and 
the  depraved,  has  sprung  up  in  society. 

Whatever  is,  is  right. 

A  noun  clause  used  in  apposition  should  be  set  off  by 
commas  ;  as,  — 

The  provision  of  the  Constitution,  that  new  states  may 
be  admitted  into  the  Union,  has  resulted  in  the  addition  of 
thirty-one  states  to  the  original  thirteen. 


TENSES   OF  THE  INFINITIVE.  255 

Lesson  296. 

ANALYSIS.  — NOMINATIVE   CLAUSES. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences :  — 

1.  That  he  was  suffering  from  hunger  was  well  known. 
2.  How  a  seed  becomes  a  plant  is  a  great  mystery.  3.  Where 
the  pirates  have  concealed  their  ill-gotten  booty  will  soon  be 
discovered.  4.  When  the  trial  will  occur  is  very  uncertain,  on 
account  of  the  judge's  illness.  5.  That  we  must  do  it  is  cer- 
tain. 6.  That  it  was  his  work  is  easily  seen.  7.  "Can  he 
succeed  ? "  is  the  question.  8.  The  rumor  is  that  he  is* 
wounded.  9.  The  report  is  that  the  fire  is  now  raging  fear- 
fully. 10.  The  question  is,  "Can  he  succeed?"  11.  The 
reason  may  be?  he  does  not  try.  12.  The  query  is,  "Where 
can  we  find  it  ?  " 

< 

That  he  was  suffering  from  hunger  was  well  known. 


Lesson  297. 

TENSES   OF   THE   INFINITIVE. 

When  an  infinitive  is  joined  to  a  verb  which  it  modifies, 
the  tense  of  the  infinitive  does  not  denote  time  actually 
present,  past,  or  future,  but  the  present  infinitive  denotes 
time  present  or  future,  and  the  perfect  infinitive  denotes 
time  past,  relative  to  the  time  of  the  verb  with  which 
each  is  used.  The  same  rule  applies  to  the  participle. 
These  sentences  are  correct :  — 


256  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

He  was  said  to  be  very  old. 

He  was  said  to  have  been  born  in  1815. 

Correct  the  following  sentences  :  — 

It  was  part  of  my  duty  to  have  dusted  the  room. 

The  general  expected  to  have  reached  the  river  before  night 
overtook  him. 

The  fireman  was  thought  to  be  dead  from  suffocation  before 
the  fire  reached  him. 

He  intended  to  have  started  on  his  journey  to-morrow. 

We  happened  to  meet  him  once  before  this. 

Did  you  not  expect  to  have  spent  Christmas  Day  at  home  ? 

This  meeting  ought  to  have  taken  place  to-morrow  instead 
of  to-day. 

It  would  have  given  me  still  greater  pleasure  to  receive  his 
approbation  at  an  earlier  period ;  but  to  have  received  it  at  all 
is  a  gratification  to  me. 

The  car  has  gone,  though  she  thought  it  would  have  waited. 

I  thought  you  could  have  done  it. 

I  intended  to  have  gone  yesterday,  but  the  rain  prevented. 


Lesson  298. 

TREASURER'S   REPORT. 

A  treasurer,  for  his  own  safety  and  that  of  the  society 
for  which  he  acts,  should  make  frequent  and  detailed 
reports.  This  report  should  be  examined  and  approved 
by  an  auditor  or  an  auditing  committee  appointed  for  this 
purpose,  before  it  is  presented  to  the  society. 

Using  the  following  form  as  a  guide,  make  out  a  treas- 
urer's report  for  some  society  or  club.  Notice  the  certifi- 
cate of  the  auditing  committee. 


TREASURER'S  REPORT.  257 

TREASURER'S  KEPORT. 

The  undersigned.  Treasurer  of  The  Daily  Doings  Club,  begs 
leave  to  submit  the  following  report  for  the  quarter  ending 
Nov.  1,  1891 :  - 

The  balance  on  hand  at  the  commencement  of  the  quarter 
was  seven  dollars  and  fifty  cents.  There  have  been  received 
from  all  sources  during  the  quarter  fifteen  dollars  and  thirty 
cents :  during  the  same  time  the  expenses  amounted  to  twelve 
dollars  and  seventy  cents,  leaving  a  balance  on  hand  of  ten 
dollars  and  ten  cents. 

The  annexed  statement  will  show  in  detail  the  receipts  and 
expenditures. 

All  of  which  is  respectfully  submitted. 

JEROME  ADAMS, 

Treasurer  Daily  Doings  Club. 

JEROME  ALLEN,  Treasurer,  in  acc't  with  Daily  Doings  Club. 


1891.  Dr. 

Sept.  1.  To  cash  on  hand  at  end 

of  previous  quarter    .  37.50 
Oct.  1.    To  membership  [15]  fees,     3.75 
Oct.  15.  To  sale  of  papers  .    .    .     4.85 
"     "To  proceeds   of    enter- 
tainment     6.70 


$22.80 


1891.  Cr. 

Oct.  20.  By  subscription  for 

Public  Opinion  .    .    .  32.50 

The  Week's  Current  .  1.50 

Detroit  Free  Press  .    .  4.35 

Detroit  Tribune .    .    .  4.35 

By  balance     .    .    : 10.10 

$22.80 


EAST  S  AGIN  AW,  MICH., 
Nov.  1, 1891. 

We  hereby  certify  that  we  have  examined  the  accounts  and  vouchers  of 
the  Treasurer  and  find  them  correct ;  and  that  the  balance  in  his  hands  is  ten 
dollars  and  ten  cents  [$10.10]. 

PHEBE  RANDALL,  j  Auditing 
ROGER  STAPLES,   )     Com. 


258  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

Lesson  299. 

EXTENDED   PARAPHRASE. 

EVENING-  SCENE. 

We  sat  within  the  farm-house  old, 
Whose  windows,  looking  o'er  the  bay, 

Gave  to  the  sea-breeze,  damp  and  cold, 
An  easy  entrance,  night  and  day. 

Not  far  away  we  saw  the  port, 

The  strange,  old-fashioned,  silent  town, 

The  light-house,  the  dismantled  fort, 
The  wooden  houses,  quaint  and  brown. 

We  sat  and  talked  until  the  night, 

Descending,  filled  the  room ; 
Our  faces  faded  from  the  sight  — 

Our  voices  only  broke  the  gloom. 

LONGFELLOW. 

Picture  to  yourself  the  group  that  is  sitting  "  within  the 
farm-house  old,"  and  describe  it  as  best  you  can.  Tell 
what  is  to  be  seen  in  the  old-fashioned  room  where  they 
are  sitting.  Describe  the  view  from  the  windows.  Tell 
what  the  inmates  are  talking  about. 


Lesson  300. 

ANALYSIS.— OBJECTIVE   CLAUSES. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences :  — 

1.  We  hope  that  you  will  return  soon.     2.  I  heard  that  the 
vessel  was  lost  at  sea.     3.  I  know  that  my  Redeemer  liveth. 


ATTRA  CTIVENESS.  259 

4.  He  said,  "I  care  not  for  glory."  5.  "I  do  not  desire  re- 
nown/' he  said.  6.  I  cannot  imagine  why  he  is  absent.  7.  My 
cousin's  cousin  knows  where  the  berries  are  thickest.  8.  Do 
you  know  when  the  train  will  be  due  in  Boston?  9.  "You 
now  see/'  he  remarked,  "  how  this  may  be  done." 

We  hope  that  you  will  return  soon. 


Lesson  3O1. 

ATTRACTIVENESS. 

That  style  in  writing  is  most  attractive  in  which  the 
language  best  fits  the  thought,  and  most  clearly  and  readily 
conveys  that  thought  to  the  reader.  All  needless  effort  to 
understand  is  a  loss. 

The  most  important  rule  for  the  young  writer  who 
would  add  attractiveness  to  his  style  after  it  has  clearness 
and  force  is,  — 

Similar  parts  of  a  sentence  should  be  similar  in  form. 

The  words,  phrases,  or  clauses  which  are  united  by  a 
co-ordinate  conjunction  should  be  similar  in  form. 

"  The  room  is  large  and  cheerful "  is  a  much  better  sen- 
tence than  "  The  room  is  of  good  size  and  cheerful."  The 
expression,  "  The  day  preceding  and  the  day  following," 
or  "The  day  before  and  the  day  after,"  is  better  than 
"  The  day  before  and  the  day  following,"  or  "  The  day 
preceding  and  the  day  after." 

Improve  these  sentences :  — 

Did  he  come  to  you  angry  or  in  sorrow  ? 


260  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

Heat  expands  metals,  but  they  are  contracted  by  cold. 

Did  they  go  off  in  a  sail-boat  or  rowing  ? 

He  was  a  man  well  adapted  naturally  and  by  cultivation  to 
occupy  the  highest  position  in  life. 

The  happy  family  lived  together  in  peace  and  harmoniously, 

It  is  not  when  fortune  smiles  that  the  heart  is  tried,  but  at 
the  time  she  frowns. 

The  book  is  well  printed,  with  gilt  edges,  of  clear  type,  and 
nicely  bound. 

Kindness  and  being  forbearing  are  the  means  of  making  and 
keeping  friends. 

When  the  wind  fell,  how  quiet  and  without  ripples  the  sea 
became. 

He  did  not  seem  to  be  aware  how  sick  he  was,  or  of  the 
dangerousness  ,of  such  a  disease. 

Please  write  me  at  your  early  convenience,  and  hoping  to 
receive  a  favorable  reply,  I  am  yours  sincerely. 

The  heavens  declare  the  glory  of  God,  and  we  may  see  his 
handiwork  in  the  firmament. 


Lesson  302. 

CREDENTIALS. 

If  the  members  of  an  assembly  or  convention  have  been 
elected  or  appointed  to  their  positions,  it  is  necessary  that 
each  should  hold  some  certificate,  showing  that  he  is  en- 
titled to  serve  as  a  member.  This  certificate  is  usually 
called  the  credentials  of  the  member,  and  should  be  pre- 
pared by  the  secretary  of  the  body  sending  these  delegates. 

A  form  for  credentials  is  here  given :  — 


ANALYSIS.  —  APPOSITIVE  CLAUSES.  261 

NEWPORT,  VT., 

Nov.  17,  1890. 
To  THE  TENTH  ANNUAL  CONVENTION  OF  THE 

SUNDAY  SCHOOLS  OF  VERMONT  : 

This  certifies  that  Benjamin  Rose  has  been  duly  elected  a 
delegate  from  the  Sunday  School  of  the  Thomas  Street  Church 
of  this  city  to  the  Tenth  Annual  Convention  of  the  Sunday 
Schools  of  Vermont. 

THEODORE  YOUNG,  Secretary. 

You  are  secretary  of  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  Prepare  the  cre- 
dentials of  the  delegates  to  the  state  convention. 


Lesson  303. 

DESCRIPTION. 

Select  any  high  mountain  about  which  you  have  read, 
and  write  of  a  journey  from  its  base  to  its  summit.  De- 
scribe the  changes  in  climate,  vegetation,  and  animal  life 
which  you  find  as  you  ascend. 

Give  the  route  which  you  would  take  in  going  around 
the  world.  Mention  the  principal  places  at  which  you 
would  stop,  and  tell  what  you  would  find  of  special 
interest  in  each. 


Lesson  3O4. 

ANALYSIS.— APPOSITIVE   CLAUSES. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences :  — 

1.  The  fact  that  he  was  sick  prevented  his  return.     2.  The 


262  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

rumor  that  the  vessel  had  been  lost  was  very  extensively  cir^ 
culatecL  3.  I  had  an  impression  that  it  could  not  be  done. 
4.  That  old  hymn,  "  I  would  not  live  alway,"  was  written  by 
Muhlenburg.  5.  The  question,  "Can  he  succeed?"  is  now 
discussed  in  the  papers.  6.  You  know  the  proverb,  "Time 
arid  tide  wait  for  no  man." 


The  fact  that  he  was  sick  prevented  his  return. 

=  =  zxxxz-----  ococxxxxxxx          --- 


Lesson  305. 

ATTRACTIVENESS. 

The  rule,  Similar  parts  of  a  sentence  should  be  similar  in 
form,  will  be  more  readily  understood  from  the  following 
illustrations :  — 

"If  you  are  out  of  debt,  you  are  out  of  danger,"  is  better 
than,  "  If  you  are  out  of  debt,  you  are  in  no  danger." 

"  The  deeper  the  well,  the  cooler  the  water,"  is  better  than, 
"  The  greater  the  depth  of  the  well,  the  more  cool  the  water." 

Select  the  forms  of  expression  which  you  prefer  :  — 

Such  studies  are  imposed  as  a  labor,  and  not  cultivated  as 
a  delight. 

Such  studies  are  frequently  assigned  by  teachers  to  their 
pupils,  but  not  cultivated  by  them  with  delight. 

Their  grandeur  could  lend  so  bright  an  inspiration  to  fancy, 
so  solemn  a  dignity  to  research. 

Their  grandeur  affords  an  inspiration  to  fancy,  and  gives  to 
research  a  dignity. 

As  a  drop  falls  into  a  river,  so  a  human  life  soon  disappears. 


SYXONYMS.  263 

As  a  drop  falls  into  a  river,  so  a  human  life  falls  into 
eternity. 

Where  life  is,  there  is  hope. 
Where  there  is  life  there  is  hope. 

Improve  in  style  the  following  sentences  :  — 

They  could  hear  the  roar  of  the  waves  as  they  dashed 
against  the  rocks  or  creeping  slowly  up  the  beach. 

The  judge  was  without  partiality,  who  was  logical  in 
thought,  of  a  clear  head,  and  quick  in  his  perceptions. 

He  decided  on  renting  the  farm  and,  as  soon  as  a  good 
tenant  was  secured,  to  go  to  the  city  to  live. 

A  wise  forethought  has  led  to  preliminary  steps  to  secure 
the  selling  of  the  present  property  and  securing  a  lot  in  a 
more  desirable  location. 

He  that  ruleth  his  spirit  is  better  than  he  that  succeeds  in 
taking  a  city. 

Reputation  is  gained  by  many  acts,  but  one  act  alone  will 
destroy  it. 

Men's  thoughts  are  according  to  their  inclinations,  their 
discourse  depends  upon  their  opinions,  but  their  actions  are 
modified  by  their  habits. 

Pride  goeth. before  destruction,  and  a  fall  is  preceded  by  a 
haughty  spirit. 

Lesson  306. 

SYNONYMS. 

State  the  distinction  in  the  meaning  between :  — 

misfortune  and  calamity  envy  and  jealousy 

modesty  and  humility  diligence  and  industry 

Use  each  of  the  foregoing  words  in  a  sentence. 


264  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

Lesson  3O7. 

CREDENTIALS. 

Copy  this  form  for  delegates'  credentials :  — 
DELEGATES'  CREDENTIALS. 


Oct.  6,  1888. 


Voting  District  No.  One. 

This  is  to  Certify,  That  at  a  meeting  of  the *  Electors  of 

this  Voting  District,  held  at  the  Town  House  in  said  District 
on  Saturday,  Oct.  6,  1888,  pursuant  to  a  regular  call  of  the 

*  Town  Committee,  issued  under  the  directions  and  in 

conformity  with  the  call  of  the *  State  Central  Committee, 

the  following  Delegates  were  chosen  to  attend  the  State  Con- 
vention, to  be  held  at ,  on  Thursday,  Oct.  15,  1888, 

at  11  o'clock  A.M.,  for  the  purpose  of  nominating  Candidates 
for  General  Officers  of  the  State  for  the  year  ensuing : 

{NATHAN  D.  SHARP, 
ANDREW  F.  HARRIS, 
E.  0.  EOBINSON. 

The  said  delegates  were  given  power  to  fill  all  vacancies  in 
their  delegation. 
Attest : 

GEO.  B.  BENNETT,  HENRY  F.  GATES, 

Chairman.  Secretary. 

You  are  clerk  of  the caucus;  prepare  the  creden- 
tials of  the  delegates  to  the  city  convention  of  the 

party  to  nominate  candidates  for  mayor  and  other  officers. 

*  Democratic,  Republican,  Prohibition. 


OMISSION   OF  A   PART  OF  A    VERB.  265 

Lesson  308. 

OMISSION    OF   A  PART   OF   A  VERB. 

When  two  or  more  forms  of  the  same  verb  are  connected 
by  a  conjunction,  no  part  of  the  full  tense -forms  not 
belonging  to  each  should  be  omitted. 

If  a  part  of  any  verb  is  omitted,  we  infer  that  the  full 
form  of  this  verb  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  other  verb  or 
verbs.  For  example,  in  the  sentence,  "What  you  have 
done  once  you  can  again,"  the  second  verb  is  incomplete, 
and  we  naturally  supply  the  past  participle  of  the  first  verb, 
making  the  sentence  read,  "What  you  have  done  once 
you  can  done  again."  The  sentence  should  have  been 
written,  "  What  you  have  done  once  you  can  do  again." 

Tell  what  part  of  the  verb  has  been  omitted  in  each  of 
the  following  sentences.  Write  the  sentences  correctly. 

No  store  either  has  or  can  sell  this  coat  at  so  low  a  figure. 

They  have  not  and  do  not  tell  all  the  facts  of  the  case. 

He  was  brought  to  the  school  by  some  gentleman  who  had 
helped  his  fatlier  and  now  would  him. 

I  always  have  respected  and  do  now  his  conscientiousness 
and  liberality,  but  I  never  have  and  never  can  admire  him  as 
a  man. 

I  have  and  will  maintain  that  he  was  right. 

If  you  had  written  when  you  said  you  would,  we  should  not 
have  missed  seeing  each  other. 

You  will  break  that  vase,  if  you  have  not  already,  by  your 
carelessness. 

The  long  walk  has  made  us  so  hungry  that  we  shall  eat  as 
we  never  have  before. 


266  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

Industry  has  always  been  the  way  to  success,  and  it  will,  so 
long  as  men  are  what  they  are. 

I  am  confident  that  I  can  do  as  well  as  he  has. 

If  you  had  done  as  well  as  you  could,  I  should  not  find 
fault. 


Lesson  309. 

RELATION    OF   CLAUSES. 

Tell  me  not  in  mournful  numbers 

Life  is  but  an  empty  dream ; 
For  the  soul  is  dead  that  slumbers, 

And  things  are  not  what  they  seem. 

This  sentence  may  be  arranged  by  clauses,  and  the  office 
of  each  clause  shown  thus  :  — 

Tell  me  not  in  mournful  numbers  —  Principal  clause. 
Life  is  but  an  empty  dream  —  Noun  clause,  object  of  tell. 
For  the  soul  is  dead  —  Adverbial  clause,  modifying  tell. 
That  slumbers  —  Adjective  clause,  modifying  soul. 
And  things  are  not  —  Adverbial  clause,  modifying  tell. 
What  they  seem  —  Noun  clause,  attributive  complement. 

Arrange  the  following  complex  sentences  so  as  to  show 
the  clauses,  and  tell  what  kind  of  clause  each  is  and 
its  relation  to  some  other  word  in  the  sentence  :  — 

Ask  yourself  what  is  the  leading  motive  that  actuates  you 
while  you  are  at  work. 

The  wise  man  is  happy  when  he  gains  the  respect  of  those 
whom  he  esteems. 

Thou  shalt  honor  thy  father  and  thy  mother  when  thou 
comest  to  the  land  which  I  will  give  thee. 


PUNCTUATION.  267 

I  will  stay  here  until  you  have  finished  the  work  which  you 
have  undertaken. 

I  have  an  uncle  who  will  be  seventy  years  of  age  when 
Christmas  comes  around. 

I  will  remain  until  the  carrier  brings  me  the  letter  which  I 
expect. 

A  certain  man  was  setting  out  on  a  journey  when  a  friend 
said  to  him,  "  Remember  that  time  and  tide  wait  for  no  man." 

A  milkmaid,  who  was  coming  from  the  dairy,  was  walking 
along  with, a  can  of  milk  upon  her  head  just  as  it  was  growing 
dark. 

An  old  man  who  had  been  listening  got  up  and  said,  "  Such 
nonsense  will  defeat  its  own  purpose." 


Lesson  31O. 

PUNCTUATION.  —  PARENTHESES   AND   BRACKETS. 

The  parenthesis  may  be  used  to  inclose  words  which  break 
the  connection  between  closely  related  parts  of  the  sentence, 
and  which  are  not  necessary  to  the  sense. 

The  difference  between  the  use  of  parentheses  and  of 
commas  to  inclose  parenthetical  expressions  is  simply 
one  of  degree.  The  parentheses  separate  the  inclosed 
words  more  completely  from  the  remainder  of  the  sentence 
than  the  commas  do. 

Brackets  are  used  to  inclose  some  explanation,  addition, 
or  correction. 

Do  not  interrupt  the  thought  of  a  sentence  by  the  need- 
less use  of  parenthetical  remarks. 

Compare  the  two  following  letters,  and  explain  why  one 
is  more  pleasing  than  the  other :  - 


268  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

I  received  yours  of  the  25th  ult.  (although  it  did  not  come 
to  hand  until  the  6th  inst.,  owing  to  the  recent  blockade),  and 
I  now  take  the  first  opportunity  business  affords  (which  is 
very  good  of  late)  of  answering  it,  and  which  I  shall  do  with 
as  much  attention  to  all  your  requests  as  my  spare  time  (which, 
as  I  said  before,  is  now  very  agreeably  contracted  by  the  in- 
creased business)  will  permit  me,  and  I  think  you  will  find 
them  all  fulfilled  in  about  three  weeks  (or  a  little  later). 

Yours  of  the  25th  ult.  did  not  come  to  hand  till  the  6th  inst., 
owing  to  the  recent  blockade,  and  this  is  my  first  opportunity 
for  answering  it.  I  fear  that  my  time  is  too  limited,  because 
of  an  increased  amount  of  business,  to  permit  my  paying  as 
much  attention  to  your  requests  as  I  would  like  to  do ;  but  you 
may  depend  upon  my  attending  to  all  of  them  within  the  next 
three  weeks. 


Lesson  311. 

ATTRACTIVENESS. 

Do  not  use  a  word  in  more  than  one  sense  in  the  same 
sentence. 

Do  not  say,  "  He  left  the  main  road  by  a  path  leading 
to  the  left  across  the  field." 

Improve  these  sentences  :  — 

The  supply  of  coffee  was  not  sufficient  to  supply  the  army 
for  more  than  ten  days. 

"  Well,"  said  I,  "  you  have  stoned  up  that  well  very  well." 

With  a  very  good  will  will  I  be  your  companion. 

It  is  now  your  turn  to  turn  the  grindstone. 

They  saw  that  it  had  sharp-edged  teeth  like  a  saw. 


EXTENDED  PARAPHRASE.  269 

It  was  thought  best  to  anchor,  but  in  letting  down  the 
anchor  it  caught  in  some  drift-wood. 

Handle  that  basket  carefully,  for  it  is  filled  with  eggs  and 
has  no  handle. 

In  this  case  the  noun  is  in  the  nominative  case. 

She  leaves  the  leaves  of  her  book  dirty. 

The  present  you  made  her  will  satisfy  her  for  the  present. 

I  do  not  like  to  hear  a  boy  talk  like  that. 

A  man  of  his  sense  should  have  a  higher  sense  of  duty. 


Lesson  312. 

EXTENDED    PARAPHRASE. 

THE  OLD  HOME. 

Between  broad  fields  of  wheat  and  corn 
Is  the  lowly  home  where  I  was  born ; 
The  peach  tree  leans  against  the  wall, 
And  the  woodbine  wanders  over  all. 
There  is  the  barn,  and,  as  of  yore, 
I  can  sniell  the  hay  from  the  open  door, 
And  see  the  busy  swallows  throng, 
And  hear  the  peewee's  mournful  song. 
Oh,  ye  who  daily  cross  the  sill, 
Step  lightly,  for  I  love  it  still ! 
And  when  you  crowd  the  old  barn  eaves, 
Then  think  what  countless  harvest  sheaves 
Have  passed  within  that  scented  door, 
To  gladden  eyes  that  are  no  more. 

THOMAS  BUCHANAN  READ. 

Describe  the  old  home  and  its  surroundings,  and  add 
something  about  its  former  inmates. 


270  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

Lesson  313. 

INFINITIVES  AND   PARTICIPLES. 

Infinitives  are  used  chiefly  as  nouns.  Participles  are 
used  chiefly  as  adjectives. 

An  infinitive  may  be  used  as  a  noun,  an  adjective,  or  an 
adverb;  as, — 

To  ride  [noun]  is  more  pleasant  than  to  walk  [noun]. 
Time  to  come  [adjective]  is  called  future  time. 
He  came  to  see  [adverb]  me. 

A  participle  may  be  used  as  a  noun,  an  adjective,  or  an 
adverb;  as, — 

Riding  [noun]  horseback  is  pleasant  exercise. 

The  boy,  broken  [adjective]  down  with  grief,  confessed  his 
fault. 

Here  it  comes  sparkling  [adverb]  and  there  it  lies  darkling 
[adverb]. 

An  infinitive  with  its  modifiers  and  complements  is 
called  an  infinitive  phrase.  A  participle  with  its  modi- 
fiers and  complements  is  called  a  participial  phrase.  An 
infinitive  phrase  or  a  participial  phrase  used  as  a  noun  is 
called  a  noun  phrase. 

I  left  the  road  to  help  the  poor  fellow. 

In  this  sentence  what  is  the  infinitive  phrase?  Whao 
does  to  help  modify  ?  What  is  the  complement  of  to  help  ? 

I  saw  him  cutting  the  tree  with  his  hatchet. 
What  is  the  participial  phrase?    Which  is  the  participle? 


SYNONYMS.  —  CA  UTIONS.  271 

What  does  it  modify  ?     What  is  its  complement  ?     What 
is  its  modifier  ? 

They  intend  to  see  Palestine. 

Which  is  the  infinitive  in  tins  sentence?  As  a  noun 
what  is  its  construction  ?  As  a  verb  how  is  it  modified  ? 

They  intend  going  to  Palestine. 

Which  is  the  participle  in  this  sentence?  As  a  noun 
what  is  its  construction  ?  As  a  verb  how  is  it  modified  ? 

After  the  verbs  bid,  dare,  feel,  hear,  let,  make,  and  see,  to, 
the  sign  of  the  infinitive,  is  usually  omitted,  and  the  infini- 
tive is  used  as  an  adjective  modifier  of  the  object  of  these 
verbs. 

Lesson  314. 

Q| 

SYNONYMS. 

In  what  respects  do  these  words  agree  in  meaning  ?  In 
what  respects  do  they  differ  ? 

custom  and  habit  should  and  ought  to 

couple  'and  two  equivocal  and  ambiguous 

Use  each  of  these  words  in  a  sentence. 


Lesson  315. 

CAUTIONS. 

Do  not  say :  — 

a  quarter  of  nine  for  a  quarter  to  nine 
come  and  see  me  for  come  to  see  me 
try  and  do  it  for  try  to  do  it 


272  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

I  am  afraid  it  will  rain  for  I  fear  it  will  rain 

not  as  I  know  of  for  not  that  I  know 
right  here  for  just  here  gents  for  gentlemen 

right  there  for  just  there  somewheres  for  somewhere 

long  ways  off  for  long  way  off          concern  for  thing 
had  have  for  had  mad  for  angry 


Lesson  316. 

EXTENDED   PARAPHRASE. 

THE  HOMES  OF  ENGLAND. 
The  stately  homes  of  England, 

How  beautiful  they  stand  ! 
Amidst  their  tall  ancestral  trees, 

O'er  all  the  pleasant  land ; 
The  deer  across  their  greensward  bound 

Through  shade  and  sunny  gleam, 
And  the  swan  glides  past  them  with  the  sound 

Of  some  rejoicing  stream. 

The  cottage  homes  of  England  ! 

By  thousands  on  her  plains, 
They  are  smiling  o'er  the  silvery  brooks, 

And  round  the  hamlet-fanes. 
Through  glowing  orchards  forth  they  peep, 

Each  from  its  nook  of  leaves ; 
And  fearless  there  the  lowly  sleep, 

As  the  bird  beneath  their  eaves. 

FELICIA  D.  HEMANS. 

From  the  hints  contained  in  the  first  stanza  of  the  poem, 
describe  "the  stately  homes  of  England,"  adding  other 
details  to  make  the  description  complete.  Contrast  with 
them  "  the  cottage  homes  of  England." 


ATTRACTIVENESS.  273 

Lesson  317. 

ATTRACTIVENESS. 

Do  not  repeat  the  same  word  or  words  of  similar  sound  in 
too  close  connection. 

Do  not  say,  "  They  took  the  liberty  to  shout  for  liberty 
on  one  occasion,  and  this  was  the  occasion  of  a  disturb- 
ance." Do  not  say,  "  The  large  assembly  consisted  largely 
of  ladies." 

Write  in  better  form  the  following  sentences :  — 

The  master  found  fault  with  the  faults  in  the  exercise. 

In  a  calm  moonlight  night  the  sea  is  a  beautiful  object  to 
see. 

I  was  unable  to  distinguish  who  was  the  distinguished  guest. 

I  intend  to  explain  to  you  the  plan  intended  to  be  carried  out. 

The  conditions  which  you  name  as  the  condition  of  your 
accepting  the  proposal  are  too  severe. 

We  shall  remain  at  home  during  the  remainder  of  the  day. 

The  same  character  has  characterized  their  descendants  in 
modern  times. 

He  was  anxious  to  have  me  relieved  from  all  anxiety  in  the 
matter. 

He  favored  the  undertaking  as  a  favor  to  his  friend. 


Lesson  318. 

CONSTRUCTION    OF    THE    INFINITIVE    AND 
PARTICIPLE. 

An  infinitive  or  a  participle  may  be  used  as  the  subject 
of  a  verb ;  as,  — 


274  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

To  see  the  sun  is  pleasant. 
Catching  trout  is  fine  sport. 

As  predicate  nominative ;  as,  — 

To  see  is  to  believe. 
Seeing  is  believing. 

As  the  object  of  a  transitive  verb ;  as,  - — 

I  like  to  study. 
We  enjoy  skating. 

As  the  object  of  a  preposition ;  as,  — 

We  are  about  to  recite. 

You  are  detained  for  whispering. 

In  apposition  with  a  noun  or  pronoun ;  as,  — 

It  is  wrong  to  steal. 

This  act,  quarrelling  with  your  playmates,  will  cost  you 
their  friendship. 

As  an  adjective  ;  as,  — 

He  showed  a  praiseworthy  ambition  to  excel. 

Having  lost  his  health,  he  failed  in  his  purpose  to  succeed. 

As  an  adverb ;  as,  — 

I  am  ready  to  go. 

I  read  to  learn. 

He  came  bounding  into  the  room. 

Independently ;  as,  — 

To  tell  the  truth,  I  have  not  studied  as  I  ought. 
Generally  speaking,  pupils  dislike  grammar  and  like  com- 
position. 

Give  the  construction  of  each  infinitive  and  participle  in 
this  lesson. 


'    PUNCTUATION.— THE   SEMICOLON.  275 

Lesson  319. 

PUNCTUATION.— THE    SEMICOLON. 

The  semicolon,  instead  of  the  period,  may  be  used  between 
complete  sentences,  if  short  and  closely  connected  in  thought; 
as,— 

For,  lo,  the  winter  is  past,  the  rain  is  over  and  gone ;  the 
flowers  appear  on  the  earth ;  the  time  of  the  singing  of  birds 
is  come,  and  the  voice  of  the  turtle  is  heard  in  the  land. 

Grief  counts  the  seconds ;  happiness  forgets  the  hours. 

Complete  the  punctuation  of  the  following  sentences :  - 
Greek's  a  harp  we  love  to  hear 
Latin  is  a  trumpet  clear 
Spanish  like  an  organ  swells 
Italian  rings  its  silver  bells 
France  with  many  a  frolic  mien 
Tunes  her  sprightly  violin 
Loud  the  German  rolls  his  drum 
When  Russia's  clashing  cymbals  come 
But  Britain's  sons  may  well  rejoice 
For  English  is  the  human  voice. 

Lesson  320. 

ATTRACTIVENESS. 

Successive  sentences  should  not  all  begin  in  the  same 
way.  Vary  the  sentences  by  placing  the  most  important 
word  or  phrase  at  the  beginning  or  at  the  end,  by  using 
sometimes  the  active  and  sometimes  the  passive  form,  or 
by  otherwise  changing  the  construction. 


276  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

Study  the  two  following  paragraphs  and  show  how  the 
first  has  been  changed  into  the  second :  — 

He  had  a  memory  that  amazed  all  about  him.  He  was  an 
accurate  observer  of  men  and  things.  His  strength  lay  rather 
in  a  discerning  and  sound  judgment,  than  in  imagination  or 
invention. 

His  memory,  which  never  failed  him,  astonished  all  who 
knew  him.  He  was  an  accurate  observer  of  men  and  things. 
Discernment  and  sound  judgment  were  his  strong  points ;  his 
weakness  lay  in  imagination  and  invention. 

Improve  the  following  paragraphs :  — 

Many  men  at  one  time  thought  it  right  to  live  quite  alone. 
They  shut  themselves  out  from  the  pleasures  and  luxuries  of 
the  world.  They  thought  that  a  very  self-denying  life. 

He  was  excelled  in  frankness  by  none.  His  benevolence 
was  equally  remarkable.  He  had  no  affectation  whatever. 
He  was  distinguished  in  all  his  actions  by  a  noble  carelessness 
of  public  opinion.  He  was  a  rare  example  of  humility. 


Lesson  321. 

MODIFYING   COMPLEMENT. 

An  infinitive  or  a  participle  may  be  the  modifying  com- 
plement of  a  verb  [see  page  91]  ;  as,  — 

They  made  him  run  [caused  him  to  run]. 
They  kept  him  waiting. 

Select  the  direct  objects  and  the  modifying  complements, 
and  give  the  construction  of  each  in  the  following  sen- 
tences :  — 

This  made  him  angry. 

She  baked  her  bread  brown. 


ANALYSIS.  —  INFINITIVES.  277 

I  call  that  good. 

The  people  elected  Davis  governor. 

We  chose  him  chairman. 

Let  us  call  her  Mary. 

We  will  cause  him  to  repent. 

This  wind  makes  me  chilly. 

God  paints  the  lily  white,  the  violet  blue. 

He  knocked  the  ball  higher  than  a  kite. 

She  marked  her  class  very  high. 

The  rocking  of  the  boat  made  him  seasick. 

We  thought  him  a  noble  youth. 

Use  each  of  the  following  verbs  in  a  sentence  contain- 
ing a  double  complement,  one  direct  and  one  modifying :  — 
make,  elect,  name,  style,  appoint,  choose,  render. 


Lesson  322. 

ANALYSIS.  —  INFINITIVES. 

Analyze  these  sentences,  and  parse  the  infinitives:  — 
1.  He  attends  school  to  learn.  2.  He  tried  to  speak.  3.  I 
told  them  to  go.  4.  We  saw  them  fall.  5.  I  am  ready  to 
hear.  6.  I  felt  it  tremble.  7.  They  were  about  to  move  away. 
8.  He  tried  to  retreat,  but  to  retreat  was  impossible.  9.  He  is 
supposed  to  have  gone.  10.  To  study  faithfully  is  to  be  wise. 
11.  For  one  to  steal  is  base.  12.  He  ordered  the  horse  to  be 
saddled.  13.  Let  him  sit  alone.  14.  He  was  anxious  to  learn 
to  sing.  15.  He  did  not  know  which  way  to  turn.  16.  He 
knew  when  he  ought  to  go.  17.  He  has  enough  to  eat. 
18.  I  knew  him  to  be  a  brave  man. 
I  heard  him  speak.  He  listened  to  hear  what  was  said. 

~~~  ' coececoc xzzt 

that  which 


278  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

Lesson  323. 

PETITIONS. 

A  petition  is  not  dated.  It  should  begin  with  the  name 
of  the  body  to  which  it  is  addressed,  and  should  next  state 
by  whom  —  what  class  of  persons  —  it  is  signed.  The 
customary  formula  of  conclusion  is  seen  in  the  petition 
which  follows :  — 

To   THE   HONORABLE  THE   CITY  COUNCIL   OF   THE   CITY   OF 
KALAMAZOO,  — 

The  undersigned,  property-owners  and  residents  of  the  city 
of  Kalamazoo,  respectfully  represent  to  your  honorable  body 
that  Elm  Street  is  in  a  poor  condition,  inadequate  to  the 
present  traffic  and  dangerous  to  public  travel. 

It  is  the  desire  of  your  petitioners  that  the  said  street  may 
be  made  wider  than  at  present,  straightened  at  several  points, 
and  established  as  an  avenue  of  not  less  than  eighty  (80)  feet. 
It  is  an  improvement  believed  to  be  of  great  benefit  to  the 
public  weal,  and  of  vital  interest  to  a  large  constituency  of 
taxpayers. 

Your  petitioners,  therefore,  most  respectfully  request  that 
a  committee  be  appointed  to  make  inquiry,  to  ascertain  and 
determine  the  expediency  of  the  aforesaid  improvements. 

In  accordance  with  which  your  petitioners  will  ever  pray. 


Lesson  324. 

SYNONYMS. 

In  what  respects  do  these  words  agree  in  meaning  ?     In 
what  respects  do  they  differ  ? 


ANALYSIS.  —  PARTICIPLES.  279 

to  hear  and  to  listen  to  quit  and  to  leave 

to  avenge  and  to  revenge  to  murder  and  to  assassinate 

Illustrate  by  appropriate  use  in  sentences. 


Lesson  325. 

ANALYSIS.  —  PARTICIPLES. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences,  and  parse  the  parti- 
ciples :  — 

1.  I  heard  some  one  stepping  slowly  along  the  walk.  2.  We 
saw  the  celebrated  trotting-horse  walking  over  the  ground. 
3.  We  saw  a  tired  soldier  sitting  by  the  wayside  eating  his 
dinner.  4.  The  farmer  had  three  sheep  killed  by  the  dogs. 
5.  He  still  lives,  loved  and  respected  by  all.  6.  Having  fin- 
ished his  business,  he  departed  forthwith.  7.  They  attempted 
one  foolish  thing,  walking  backward  with  their  eyes  closed. 
8.  He  was  known  without  being  seen.  9.  He  cannot  walk  far 
without  fatiguing  himself.  10.  She  cannot  work  long  without 
becoming  tired.  11.  Whistling  a  lively  tune,  he  left  us.  12.  I 
did  not  know  of  his  being  sick.  13.  I  did  not  hear  of  his  ever 
having  been  a  soldier.  14.  Having  been  disappointed  in  regard 
to  his  plans,  he  became  melancholy. 


I  heard  some  one  stepping  slowly  along  the  walk. 

rz  OOCCOC  "- 


Lesson  326. 

PUNCTUATION. 

Copy  the  following,  arranging  it  in  its  proper  form  as 
poetry,  and  punctuating  it  correctly:  — 


280  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

ABOU  BEN  ADHEM. 

Abou  Ben  Adhem  may  his  tribe  increase  awoke  one  night 
from  a  deep  dream  of  peace  and  saw  within  the  moonlight  of 
his  room  making  it  rich  and  like  a  lily  in  bloom  an  angel  writ- 
ing in  a  book  of  gold  exceeding  peace  had  made  Ben  Adhem 
bold  and  to  the  presence  in  the  room  he  said  what  writest 
thou  the  vision  raised  its  head  and  with  a  look  made  of  all 
sweet  accord  answered  the  names  of  those  who  love  the  Lord 
and  is  mine  one  asked  Abou  nay  not  so  replied  the  angel  Abou 
spake  more  low  but  cheerly  still  and  said  I  pray  thee  then 
write  me  as  one  that  loves  his  fellow  men  the  angel  wrote  and 
vanished  the  next  night  it  came  again  with  a  great  wakening 
light  and  showed  the  names  whom  love  of  God  had  blest  and 
lo  Ben  Adhems  name  led  all  the  rest.  T  TT 


Lesson  327. 

SIMPLICITY. 

Copy  this  selection,  and  substitute  short  and  simple 
words  for  those  in  italics  :  — 

Assuredly,  there  is  much  felicity  in  satiating  one's  inclination 
for  a  beverage  in  the  unsullied  water  of  a  rivulet.  Magnificent 
water  !  oscillating  in  the  hail-storm,  capering,  effervescing,  flaunt- 
ing in  the  cataract.  Contemplate  it  as  it  percolates  down  the 
mountain-side !  Regard  it  in  the  hoar-frost,  so  lucent,  as  it  is 
irradiated  by  the  sun !  Resplendent  water  !  undulating  up  the 
valley,  in  the  cloud-mist,  or  fabricating  the  rainbow. 

Why  is  the  paragraph  which  you  have  written  much 
more  pleasing  than  this  one  ? 


PUNCTUATION.  281 

Lesson  328. 

RESOLUTIONS.—  PETITIONS. 

As  secretary  of  a  Tailors'  Early  Closing  Association, 
prepare  a  resolution  relating  to  the  time  of  closing  the 
tailor  shops  of  the  city,  and  a  notice  of  this  action  for  the 
city  papers. 

Draw  up,  ready  for  signature,  a  petition  to  the  City 
Council  for  an  improvement  in  the  manner  of  lighting  the 
city. 

Prepare  a  petition  to  be  sent  to  the  legislature,  asking 
that  a  more  stringent  truant  law  be  passed. 


Lesson  329. 

PUNCTUATION.  — COLON   AND   DASH. 

The  colon  indicates  that,  though  the  sentence  may  be 
grammatically  complete,  there  is  something  following 
which  must  be  joined  in  thought  with  what  precedes. 

The  dash  denotes  that  what  follows  is  in  contrast  with 
what  precedes ;  the  colon,  that  what  follows  is  in  harmony 
with  what  precedes. 

A  colon  should  be  placed  before  a  long  quotation,  a  letter, 
a  speech,  an  argument,  or  a  list  of  particulars  when  formally 
introduced.  If  the  colon  comes  at  the  end  of  a  paragraph, 
it  may  be  followed  by  a  dash. 

Select  from  this  book,  or  elsewhere,  several  illustrations 
of  each  portion  of  the  preceding  rule. 


282  LESSONS  IN   LANGUAGE. 

Lesson  330. 

STORY  TO   BE   IMITATED. 

THE  BRAVE  HUNTER. 

A  hunter  once  who  courage  lacked, 

In  the  hill  forests  dense  his  game  had  tracked ; 

A  woodman  near  a  tall  fir  met  his  view, 

Whom  by  the  nymphs  he  prayed,  if  aught  he  knew, 

To  point  the  wild  beast's  steps  that  harbored-  near : 

The  other  said,  "  Good  luck  has  brought  you  here  ! 

The  lion's  self  to  you  I'll  quickly  show.7' 

Pale  and  with  chattering  cheek,  he  cried,  "  No,  no ! 

Pray  don't  oblige  me,  friend,  beyond  your  task ! 

To  see  the  lion's  track,  not  him,  I  ask." 

Write   a   story  or  a   fable   which   shall   illustrate  the 
thought  of  this  stanza. 


Lesson  331. 

REMONSTRANCE.  —  ANNOUNCEMENT. 

Prepare  a  remonstrance  against,  or  a  petition  in  favor 
of,  a  bill  before  the  legislature  requiring  cities  and  towns 
to  furnish  text-books  free  to  pupils. 

As  secretary  of  a  lecture  association,  write  an  announce- 
ment of  a  lecture. 

Prepare  a  short  report  of  the  lecture  for  the  morning 
papers. 


ABRIDGMENT.  283 

Lesson  332. 

ABRIDGMENT. 

A  complex  sentence  is  said  to  be  abridged  when  it  is 
reduced  to  a  simple  sentence.  This  may  be  done  by 
omitting  the  connective  and  changing  the  verb  of  the 
subordinate  clause  into  an  infinitive  or  a  participle,  or 
by  substituting  for  the  subordinate  clause  a  prepositional 
phrase  or  some  word  equivalent. 

If  the  subject  of  the  subordinate  clause  is  the  same  as 
the  subject  of  the  principal  clause,  it  is  omitted  when  the 
clause  is  abridged ;  otherwise,  it  is  retained. 

Tell  what  changes  are  made  in  each  abridgment  which 
follows :  — 

1.  When  one's  courage  is  gone,  his  efforts  amount  to  little. 

2.  One's  courage  being  gone,  his  efforts  amount  to  little. 

In  the  abridged  sentence,  when,  the  connective  of  the 
first  sentence,  a  conjunctive  adverb,  is  omitted,  and  is  gone^ 
the  verb  in  the  subordinate  clause,  is  changed  into  the 
participle  being  gone. 

1.  When  spring  returns,  the  farmer  goes  forth  to  the  field. 

2.  Spring  returning,  the  farmer  goes  forth  to  the  field. 

1.  He  departed  when  I  arrived. 

2.  He  departed  on  my  arrival. 

1.  While  we  were  standing  on  the  platform  we  needed  no 
testimony  as  to  the  velocity  of  the  cars. 

2.  Standing  on  the  platform,  we  needed  no  testimony  as  to 
the  velocity  of  the  cars. 


284  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

1.  He  desired  that  I  should  accompany  him. 

2.  He  desired  me  to  accompany  him. 

1.  I  was  not  sure  that  it  was  he. 

2.  I  was  not  sure  of  its  being  he. 


Lesson  333. 

AMBIGUOUS   USE   OF   RELATIVE   PRONOUNS. 

There  should  be  no  doubt  as  to  the  antecedent  of  a 
relative  pronoun. 

The  proper  position  of  a  relative  clause  is  next  to  the 
noun  which  it  modifies. 

In  the  following  sentences  the  relative  pronouns  are 
used  ambiguously.  Write  the  sentences  correctly. 

They  came  across  a  fertile  spot  in  the  Desert  of  Sahara 
which  is  called  an  oasis. 

The  United  States  bought  Alaska  of  Russia  which  is  situated 
in  the  north-west  corner  of  North  America. 

Hawthorne  was  a  classmate  of  Longfellow  at  Bowdoin  Col- 
lege who  was  three  years  his  senior. 

Vesuvius  is  not  far  from  Naples  from  which  black  clouds 
of  vapor  are  always  rising. 

There  was  once  a  little  girl  named  Amy  who  with  her  pets 
lived  in  Scotland,  which  consisted  of  two  rabbits,  a  lamb,  and 
some  goldfish. 

He  brought  a  friend  into  disgrace  that  had  long  been  his 
companion. 

The  river  Nile  flows  through  Egypt  which  is  one  of  the 
longest  in  the  world. 


SYNONYMS.  285 

Great  Britain  is  only  a  little  larger  than  the  state  of  Minne- 
sota in  which  more  than  half  as  many  people  live  as  there  are 
in  all  the  United  States. 

Mineral  oil  is  pumped  from  wells  in  the  country  north  of 
Pittsburg  which  is  in  Pennsylvania  from  which  kerosene  is 
made. 

The  poor  man  had  a  devoted  sister  who  had  no  brother  upon 
whom  to  call  for  assistance  who  gave  him  all  her  earnings. 

The  proprietor  at  once  dismissed  his  clerk  who  was  not  in 
the  habit  of  being  so  hasty  without  making  definite  inquiries 
into  the  matter. 

Fine  hairs  often  cover  the  bodies  of  insects  which  are  very 
thick  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  creature. 

He  needs  a  teacher  who  cannot  read. 

He  went  around  by  the  barn  instead  of  going  by  the  house 
which  would  have  been  much  shorter. 


Lesson  334. 

SYNONYMS. 

The  words  believe,  calculate,  expect,  guess,  imagine,  judge, 
consider,  and  suppose  all  imply  that  action  of  the  mind 
which  is  called  thought.  Each  means  to  think,  and  has, 
besides,  some  additional  meaning. 

To  believe  means  to  regard  or  accept  as  true. 

To  calculate  means  to  reckon  in  order  to  obtain  a  result  or 
conclusion,  and  should  not  be  used  instead  of  to  intend  or  to 
purpose. 

To  expect  means  to  look  forward  to  in  thought,  and  has 
always  reference  to  some  coming  event.  It  should  never  be 
used  in  reference  to  a  present  or  past  event. 


286  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

To  guess  means  to  attempt  to  hit  upon  at  random. 
To  imagine  means  to  form  in  the  mind  an  idea  of. 
To  judge  means  to  form  an  opinion  about. 
To  consider  means  to  think  carefully  and  deliberately. 
To  suppose  is  to  assume  to  be  true. 

Find  the  exact  meaning  of  these  words  in  the  dictionary, 
and  use  each  in  two  sentences.  Whenever  using  one  of 
these  words,  be  careful  to  consider  whether  it  is  exactly 
the  right  word  to  express  your  thought. 


Lesson  335. 

CONSTRUCTION   IN   ABRIDGED   PHRASES. 

When  an  adverbial  clause  is  abridged  to  a  phrase  con- 
taining a  noun   or  pronoun  with   a  participle,  the  noun 
or  pronoun  is  said  to  be  in  the  nominative  case  absolute, 
and  is  modified  by  the  participle  used  as  an  adjective. 
As  the  disease  was  spreading,  great  alarm  was  felt. 

The  dependent  clause  of  this  sentence  may  be  shortened 
to  a  phrase  containing  a  noun  and  a  participle ;  thus,  — 
The  disease  spreading,  great  alarm  was  felt. 

The  noun  disease  in  the  phrase  is  said  to  be  in  the  nom- 
inative case  absolute,  and  is  modified  by  the  participle 
spreading,  used  as  an  adjective. 

Abridge  the  following  sentences.  State  the  changes 
that  take  place  in  the  abridgment,  and  give  the  construc- 
tion of  the  noun  and  the  participle  in  the  abridged 
phrase :  — 

As  the  teacher  was  ill,  there  was  no  session  of  school. 

Since  this  lesson  is  poorly  learned,  you  must  study  it  again. 


ORDER   OF  PHRASES  AND  CLAUSES.  287 

Lesson  336. 

ANALYSIS.  —  NOMINATIVE   ABSOLUTE. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences.  Parse  the  participles 
and  the  nouns :  — 

1.  The  sun  having  set,  we  returned.  2.  The  »chair  being 
broken,  we  removed  it.  3.  The  storm  ceasing,  we  again 
started.  4.  The  anchor  having  been  lost,  our  vessel  drifted 
upon  the  rocks.  5.  The  man  having  become  an  invalid,  they 
carried  him  to  the  hospital. 


The  sun  having  set,  we  returned. 

X  =  5CCCO3OCCC 


Lesson  337. 

ORDER  OF   PHRASES  AND   CLAUSES. 

The  order  of  clauses  should  show  their  grammatical 
connection. 

You  may  go  now  if  it  has  stopped  raining,  and  you  will 
enjoy  the  walk. 

This  sentence  may  mean,  "  If  it  has  stopped  raining  you 
may  go  and  you  will  enjoy  the  walk,"  or  "  If  it  has 
stopped  raining  and  if  you  will  enjoy  the  walk,  you 
may  go." 

Improve  the  following  sentences :  — 

The  time  spent  in  reading  that  book  is  wasted,  if  you  do 
not  comprehend  the  lesson  that  should  be  drawn,  and  you  are 
no  better  for  having  read  it. 


288  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

The  sun  shone  forth  brightly,  as  if  it  had  never  hidden 
behind  a  cloud,  and  changed  entirely  the  appearance  of  the 
scene. 

Your  friend  told  me  that  he  had  not  heard  the  rumor  and 
spoke  the  truth. 

The  jury  decided  that  the  man  was  guilty  and  was  then 
dismissed. 


Lesson  338. 

CONSTRUCTION   IN   ABRIDGED   PHRASES. 

When  a  dependent  clause  is  abridged  to  a  phrase,  the 
participle  is  sometimes  the  principal  element  of  the  phrase. 
The  participle  has  then  the  construction  of  a  noun,  and 
the  word  which  was  the  subject  in  the  dependent  clause  is 
put  in  the  possessive  case  limiting  it. 

I  was  not  aware  that  he  was  in  the  room. 

The  dependent  clause  of  this  sentence  may  be  shortened ; 
thus,  — 

I  was  not  aware  of  his  being  in  the  room. 

In  this  phrase  the  participle  being  has  the  construction 
of  a  noun,  object  of  the  preposition  of.  The  subject  of 
the  dependent  clause  he  becomes  a  possessive  pronoun, 
depending  upon  being. 

Give  the  construction  of  the  pronouns  and  participles 
in  these  sentences :  — 

His  being  defeated  caused  great  surprise. 

Its  being  true  made  the  accusation  more  painful. 

A  dependent  clause  is  sometimes  abridged  by  changing 
its  verb  to  an  infinitive.  The  subject  of  the  clause  then 


AMBIGUITY    WITH   PARTICIPLES.  289 

becomes  the  subject  of  the  infinitive  and  is  in  the  objective 
case. 

In  all  cases  of  abridgment  the  complement  retains  with 
the  participle  or  infinitive  the  same  case  that  it  had  with 
the  verb  of  the  dependent  clause,  except  that  when  an 
infinitive  is  used  in  the  abridgment  the  predicate  noun  is 
in  the  objective  case  to  agree  with  the  subject.  This  is  in 
accordance  with  the  principle  that  "an  intransitive  or 
passive  verb  requires  the  same  case  after  it  as  before  it 
when  both  words  refer  to  the  same  person  or  thing." 


Lesson  339. 

AMBIGUITY  WITH   PARTICIPLES. 

While  the  use  of  the  participle  secures  brevity,  it  often 
leads  to  ambiguity;  for  it  is  sometimes  difficult  to  deter- 
mine what  noun  or  pronoun  the  participle  modifies.  In 
case  of  ambiguity  from  the  use  of  a  participle,  change  the 
participle  to  a  finite  verb  and  supply  a  subject,  or  change 
the  position  of  the  participle. 

Improve  the  following  sentences :  — 

John  at  once  answered  the  note  received  from  his  friend, 
urging  him  to  come  to  see  him.  [Who  was  urging?  Write 
in  two  ways.] 

As  I  came  up  in  the  street-car,  I  saw  a  dead  horse  passing 
Ninth  Street. 

I  did  not  see  you  enter  studying  so  diligently. 

This  I  could  not  tell  you,  making  so  short  a  call.  [Write  in 
two  ways.] 


290  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE. 

The  crowd  contained  the  usual  number  of  babies  and  baby- 
carriages,  crying  or  sleeping. 

The  wheels  said  to  the  horse,  "  It  is  we  that  ought  to  com- 
plain rather  than  you,  having  all  the  weight  of  the  wagon  to 
support." 

Being  badly  injured,  I  took  him  up  tenderly  and  sent  for  a 
carriage. 

Struck  with  terror,  the  boat  was  launched  at  once. 

Alarmed  at  the  news,  a  messenger  was  despatched  to  the 
queen. 

Hoping  all  things,  believing  all  things,  and  fearing  nothing, 
the  ship  left  the  harbor  with  the  noble  emigrants  on  board. 

After  partaking  of  a  hearty  breakfast,  the  balloon  was 
brought  into  town  amid  the  cheers  and  congratulations  of  the 
inhabitants. 

Being  comfortably  seated  in  the  cars,  our  journey  was  very 
pleasant. 


Lesson  34O. 

INDEPENDENT  ELEMENTS. 

The  elements  which  have  a  place  within  the  sentence, 
but  yet  are  not  a  part  of  it  because  they  are  neither  prin- 
cipal elements,  modifying  elements,  nor  connectives,  are 
called  independent  elements. 

The  independent  elements  are  :  — 

1.  The  interjection. 

2.  Words  used  in  exclamations  like  interjections;   as, 
Oh,  my  eyes ! 

3.  Nouns  used  to  name  the  subject  of  a  sentence  and 
followed  by  a  pronoun  which  is  the  real  subject ;  as,  The 
Pilgrim  Fathers,  where  are  they  ? 


A   COMPARISON   OF  STYLE.  —  UNITY.  291 

4.  The  noun  or  pronoun  denoting  the  person  addressed ; 
as,  Harold,  come  here. 

5.  The  noun  or  pronoun  used  absolutely  with  a  partici- 
ple ;  as,  The  weather  being  stormy,  there  was  no  session  of 
school. 

6.  Responsives,  i.e.  words  used  like  yes  and  no  in  answer 
to  questions. 

7.  Adverbs  used  as  introductory  words ;  as,  There  came 
a  voice  to  him. 

8.  Adverbs  and  adverbial  phrases  modifying   the   sen- 
tence rather  than  any  particular  word  of   the   sentence; 
as,  To  speak  candidly,  I  was  in  fault. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences  :  — 

1.  Oh,  I  am  so  glad  of  it!  2.  Alas,  they  are  all  gone! 
3.  Halloo !  where  are  you  going  now  ?  4.  James,  bring  me 
the  hammer.  5.  William,  where  have  you  been  ?  6.  Fame ! 
I  care  not  for  fame.  7.  There  is  not  a  star  to  be  seen.  8.  Proud 
city  of  the  waters,  thoii  art  doomed. 

Independent  elements  may  be  marked  by  placing  an  X 
beneath  them ;  thus,  — 

0,  I  am  so  glad  of  it ! 


Lesson  341. 

A   COMPARISON   OF   STYLE.  —  UNITY. 

Compare  the  two  following  notes,  and  explain  why  one 
is  better  than  the  other  :  — 

I  intend  to  go  to  the  country  next  week,  but  I  shall  do  the 
errands  for  you  before  I  go,  though  some  of   them  may  be 


292  LESSONS   IN   LANGUAGE. 

troublesome,  as  you  say,  but  with  Jane's  help  I  am  sure  I  can 
accomplish  them  all,  although  the  most  difficult  of  all  will  be 
to  match  that  silk  which  is  of  a  very  peculiar  shade,  and  I 
will  send  the  packages  to  you  by  express  as  soon  as  possible. 

I  intend  to  go  to  the  country  next  week,  but  I  shall  do  those 
errands  for  you  before  I  go.  Some  of  them  may  be  trouble- 
some, as  you  say,  but  with  Jane's  help  I  am  sure  I  can  accom- 
plish them  all.  The  most  difficult  of  all  will  be  to  match  that 
silk,  which  is  of  a  very  peculiar  shade.  I  will  send  the  pack- 
ages to  you  by  express  as  soon  as  possible. 

A  sentence  should  present  to  the  mind  but  one  thought 
and  those  modifications  of  that  thought  which  unite  to 
make  it  complete.  Thoughts  having  little  connection, 
thoughts  that  do  not  unite  to  create  one  mental  picture, 
should  not  be  presented  in  the  same  sentence. 

Improve  the  sentences  below.  This  can  be  done  by 
making  as  many  sentences  as  there  are  complete  thoughts. 

After  we  reached  the  station  the  conductor  assisted  me  to 
the  platform  where  I  found  my  friends  who  had  come  to  see 
me  as  the  news  of  my  coming  had  preceded  me,  [After  we 
reached  the  station  the  conductor  assisted  me  to  the  platform. 
There  I  found  my  friends  who  had  come  to  see  me,  as  the 
news  of  my  coming  had  preceded  me.] 

Their  march  was  through  an  uncultivated  country,  whose 
savage  inhabitants  fared  badly,  having  no  other  riches  than  a 
breed  of  lean  sheep,  whose  flesh  was  rank  and  unsavory  by 
reason  of  their  continual  feeding  upon  sea-fish. 

Neither  is  any  condition  of  life  more  honorable  in  the  sight 
of  God  than  another,  otherwise  He  would  be  a  respecter  of 
persons,  which  He  assures  us  He  is  not. 

For,  notwithstanding  his  having  gone  in  winter  to  Moscow, 


PUNCTUATION.  —  INDEPENDENT  ELEMENTS.      293 

where  he  found  the  cold  excessive,  which  confined  him 
without  intermission  six  weeks  to  his  room,  we  could  not 
induce  him  to  return  home. 

Men  who  have  looked  at  the  different  kinds  of  rocks  and 
have  studied  the  work  of  the  sea,  the  tides,  and  the  waves, 
have  tried  to  make  a  science  of  it  all,  and  this  science  they 
call  Geology,  which  is  a  delightful  and  most  instructive  study. 

Christopher  Columbus,  old  and  very  poor,  died  at  Valladolid 
in  1506,  which  was  thirteen  years  after  the  discovery  of  San 
Salvador,  where  thousands  of  the  Indians  had  been  killed  by 
the  cruel  Spaniards,  who  desired  to  satisfy  their  selfish  greed 
for  gold. 


Lesson  342. 

PUNCTUATION.  —  INDEPENDENT    ELEMENTS. 

Set  off  by  commas  independent  elements,  unless  the  excla- 
mation point  is  required  instead. 

Complete  the  punctuation  of  the  following  sentences:  — 

His  father  being  dead  the  prince  succeeded  to  the  throne. 
Peace  of  mind  being  secured  we  may  smile  at  misfortune. 
To  speak  candidly  I  do  not  understand  the  subject. 
The  fault  dear  Brutus  is  not  in  our  stars. 
Thy  rod  and  thy  staff  they  comfort  me. 
The  prophets  do  they  live  forever? 

Generally  speaking  the  education  of  the  common  people  is 
advancing  rapidly  in  the  United  States. 
Beautiful  yes  but  it  will  not  last  long. 
How  lucky  you  are  to  be  sure  ! 
Well  I  will  try  to  help  you. 
What  then  is  the  happiest  time  of  life  ? 


294  LESSONS  IN  LANGUAGE.      . 

Plato  thou  reasonest  well. 

We  being  exceedingly  tossed  they  lightened  the  ship. 
This  is  to  say  nothing  worse  reprehensible. 
Then  came  Jesus  the  door  being  shut  and  stood  in  the  midst. 
Speaking  in  round  numbers  he  made  fifty  thousand  dollars. 
There  are  to  confess  the  truth  few  who  are  fully  qualified 
to  govern  their  fellows. 

An  exclamation  point  must  be  used  after  independent  ele- 
ments which  express  strong  emotion,  after  all  interjections 
except  0,  and  after  all  exclamatory  phrases. 

NOTE.  —  When  an  interjection  is  closely  connected  with 
the  words  which  follow,  the  exclamation  point  is  usually 
placed  at  the  end  of  the  sentence. 


Lesson  343. 

ESSAY.  — THE   UNITED   STATES. 

1.  What  is  its  position  ? 

2.  What  is  its  extent  ? 

3.  What  is  its  population  ? 

4.  What  classes  and  nationalities  are  included  in  its  popu- 
lation? 

5.  Describe  some  of  its  natural  features. 

6.  What  are  its  chief  productions  ? 

7.  What  are  its  chief  towns  ? 

8.  What  is  its  government  ? 

9.  In  what  way  is  it  superior  to  other  countries  ? 


INDEX. 


THE  FIGURES  REFER  TO  THE  PAGES. 


Abbreviations,  17,  21. 

Abridgment,  283;  construction  in  abridged  phrases,  286,  288. 

Abstract  nouns,  52. 

Adjective,  15;  descriptive  and  limiting,  16;  predicate,  16,  42,  50; 
numeral,  cardinal,  and  ordinal,  16;  comparison  of,  18,20;  inter- 
rogative, 89;  position  of ,  128 ;  emphatic  predicate,  161 ;  emphatic, 
166 ;  distinction  between  adverbs  and,  191 ;  figurative  use  of,  225. 

Adjective  pronouns,  206. 

Adverbial  objective,  88. 

Adverbs:  definition,  22;  comparison  of,  22;  interrogative,  89 ;  position 
of,  141 ;  distinction  between  adjectives  and,  191. 

Advertisements,  84,  92. 

Ambiguity,  124;  with  personal  pronouns,  137 ;  with  relative  pronouns, 
284  ;  with  participles,  289. 

Amendments,  200. 

Analysis:  subject  and  predicate,  43;  adjective  element,  46;  comple- 
ments, 49;  appositive,  71 ;  possessive  case,  74;  objective  elements, 
78  ;  adverbial  element,  81 ;  indirect  object,  83 ;  adverbial  object,  88 ; 
adjective  phrases,  94;  adverbial  phrases,  99;  possessive  pronouns, 
207;  co-ordinate  conjunctions,  218;  compound  sentences,  234; 
adjective  clauses,  241 ;  adverbial  clauses,  248 ;  nominative  clauses, 
255 ;  objective  clauses,  258 ;  appositive  clauses,  261 ;  infinitives,  277 : 
participles,  279 ;  nominative  absolute,  287 ;  independent  elements,  291. 

Antecedent,  11,  210,  213. 

Apostrophe,  18,  72. 

Apposition,  69 ;  punctuation  of,  70 ;  analysis  of,  71. 

Article,  definite  and  indefinite,  16. 

Attractiveness  of  style,  259,  262,  268,  273,  275. 

Auxiliary  verbs,  140;  conjugation  of,  140,  146,  148,  157. 

295 


296  INDEX. 

Balanced  sentences,  246. 

Bills,  122. 

Book  review,  244. 

Brackets,  267. 

Brevity,  180,  184,  189. 

Brief  biography,  18,  22,  27. 

Business  forms:  bills,  122;  receipts,  134,  138 ;  checks,  143;  indorse- 
ment of  checks,  147;  promissory  notes,  155;  orders,  164;  drafts, 
168;  various  forms,  175,  181. 

Business  letters,  50,  55,  58. 

Capital  letters,  use  of,  4,  8,  10,  25,  30. 

Cardinal  adjectives,  16. 

Case:  definition,  67;  nominative,  67;  exercise,  79;  appositive,  69; 
analysis  of  appositive,  71 ;  possessive,  72 ;  analysis  of  possessive, 
74;  objective,  77,  85;  analysis  of  objective,  78;  analysis  of  adver- 
bial objective,  88;  nominative  absolute,  286;  analysis  of  nomina- 
tive absolute,  287. 

Cautions,  27,  38,  54,  86,  150,  224,  271. 

Checks,  143 ;  indorsement  of,  147. 

Clauses,  24,  28,  216;  principal  and  subordinate,  216;  adjective,  237; 
restrictive  or  explanatory,  239 ;  analysis  of  adjective,  241 ;  analy- 
sis of  adverbial,  248 ;  noun,  253 ;  analysis  of  nominative,  255 ; 
analysis  of  objective,  258 ;  analysis  of  appositive,  261 ;  relation  of, 
266 ;  order  of,  287. 

Climax,  251. 

Collective  nouns,  52,  129. 

Colon,  10,  57,  242,  251,  281. 

Comma,  10,  23,  34,  46,  53,  57,  70,  104,  106,  121,  240,  242,  247,  254,  293. 

Comparison,  18;  irregular,  20;  of  adverbs,  22. 

Complement  and  modifier,  distinction  between,  48. 

Complements,  41,  45  ;  objective,  42  ;  analysis  of,  50 ;  modifying,  91,  276. 

Compound  words,  37. 

Conjugation,  140;  shall  and  will,  140;  may,  146;  have,  148;  write, 
152;  do,  155;  be,  157;  review  of,  177,  179,  181. 

Conjunctions,  32;  co-ordinate  and  subordinate,  217;  analysis  of  co- 
ordinate, 218;  correlative,  222,  224;  placed  before  the  same  part 
of  speech,  225. 

Connectives,  33,  216. 

Constitution  and  by-laws,  194. 


INDEX.  297 

Contractions,  18. 
Contrast,  233. 
Co-ordinate  elements,  216. 
Copy  of  record,  250. 
Correlatives,  222,  224,  225. 
Credentials,  260,  264. 

Dash,  10,  133,  281. 

Declension,  103;  of  personal  pronouns,  103;  of  relative  and  interroga 
tive,  205. 

Defective  verbs,  125. 

Description,  6,  11,  12,  40,  47,  51,  58,  65,  68,  72,  78,  82,  87,  95,  <)8,  102, 
105,  116,  122,  126,  132,  138,  146,  148,  205,  219,  227,  251, '261 ;  con- 
trasted, 150,  159,  164,  169,  177,  185,  191,  196.  < 

Descriptive  adjective,  16. 

Dialogue,  166,  215. 

Diminutives,  two,  86. 

Direct  and  indirect  objects,  82 ;  analysis  of,  83. 

Direct  and  modifying  complements,  91. 

Drafts,  168. 

Either  and  or,  224. 

Elements  of  a  sentence,  43;  analysis  of  adverbial,  81 ;  co-ordinate  and 

subordinate,  216;    independent,  290;   punctuation  of  independent, 

293. 
Emphasis,  order  of,  153;  of  subject,  158;  of  adjective,  161,  166;  of 

object,  170;  of  adverbial  elements,  276. 
Emphatic  form  of  verbs,  165. 

Essays,  111,  139,  156,  175,  182,  190   200,  210,  214,  231,  236,  294. 
Etiquette:  good  manners,  61,  65;  manners  at  table,  76;  at  school,  90: 

on  the  street,  100;   at  a  party,  123;  when  visiting,  144. 
Exaggeration,  114. 
Exclamation  point,  4,  36,  57,  293,  294. 

Figurative  and  commonplace  statement,  241. 

Figures  of  speech,  208,  212,  215,  216,  220,  229,  225,  241,  244. 

Formal  notes,  31,  35,  45,  47. 

Gender:  definition,  63;  ways  of  indicating,  66;  exercise,  79. 
Hyphen,  36. 


298  INDEX. 

Imperative,  109,  160. 

Independent  elements,  290;  punctuation  of,  293. 

Indicative,  108,  160,  162. 

Infinitives:  definition,  135;  tenses  of,  255;  general  use,  270;  phrase, 

270;  sign  omitted,  271;  construction  of,  273,  276;  analysis  of,  277. 
Initial  letters,  17. 
Interjections,  35. 
Interrogation  point,  4,  57. 
Interrogative  adjective,  89 ;   pronoun,  89,  204 ;   adverb,  89 ;    order  of 

words,  89  ;  form  of  verb,  165. 
Intransitive  verbs,  47. 
Introductory  words,  92,  253. 
Irregular  verbs,  118. 
Italics,  23. 

Letters  :  forms  of,  8,  14;  formal  notes,  31,  35,  44,  46;  business,  50,55, 
58;  miscellaneous,  59,  72;  of  introduction,  64;  of  recommenda- 
tion, 67. 

Like  and  as,  distinction  in  use,  224. 

Limiting  adjective,  16. 

Loose  sentences,  246. 

Margins,  3. 

Marks  of  correction,  29. 

Marks  of  punctuation:  capital  letters,  4,  10,  25,  30;  interrogation 
point,  4;  exclamation  point,  4,  36;  period,  4,  5,  10;  dash,  5,  281; 
/comma,  10,  23,  33,  45,  53,  57,  104,  110,  121,  235,  239,  242,  247,  254, 
293;  quotation  marks,  23,  24;  colon,  23,  281;  hyphen,  36;  semi- 
colon, 235,  242,  251,  275;  parenthesis,  267. 

Metaphor,  216,  220,  229;  faded,  225;  mixed,  244. 

Mode,  108;  tenses  of,  160;  notes  on,  162. 

Modifiers,  13,  25;  position  of,  127,  132,  141. 

Modifying  complement,  91,  276. 

Narration,  105,  109. 

Natural  order  of  words,  80,  84. 

Negative  form  of  verbs,  167. 

Negatives,  two,  86. 

Neither  and  nor,  224. 

Newspaper  articles,  96,  100,  104. 


INDEX.  299 

Nominative  absolute,  286,  287. 

Nominative  case,  67. 

Notice  of  reference,  209. 

Nouns :  definition,  7 ;  classes  of,  7,  52 ;  common,  7 ;  proper,  8 ;  predi- 
cate, 42,  50 ;  used  as  object,  42  ;  abstract,  52  ;  verbal,  52 ;  collective, 
52;  number  of,  56;  rules  for  plural  of,  56,  58,  60;  gender  of,  63; 
ways  of  indicating  gender  of,  66;  case  of,  67,  69,  72,  77,  79,  82; 
adverbial  use  of,  87;  used  as  modifying  complements,  91,  276; 
person  of,  97 ;  declension  of,  103. 

Number,  56 ;  rules  for  formation  of  plural,  56,  58,  60. 

Numeral  adjective,  16. 

O  and  oh,  36. 

Objective  case,  77,  78,  85. 

Objective  complement,  42. 

Orders,  164. 

Ordinal  adjectives,  16. 

Paragraph,  3. 

Paraphrase,  144,  178;  extended,  186,  195,  206,  228,  258,  269,  272. 

Parentheses,  267. 

Parsing  :  definition,  43 ;  of  verbs,  187. 

Participle:  definition,  135;  general  use,  270;  phrase,  270;  construc- 
tion, 273,  276;  analysis,  279;  ambiguous  use  of,  289. 

Particular  terms,  203. 

Parts  of  speech,  36. 

Passive  form  of  verbs,  169. 

Period,  4,  5,  10,  17,  57,  257. 

Periodic  sentences,  246. 

Person,  97. 

Personal  pronouns,  97 ;  declension  of,  103 ;  compound,  101 ;  ambiguous 
use  of,  137. 

Petitions,  278,  281. 

Phrase:  verb,  13;  definition,  25;  analysis  of  adjective,  94 ;  analysis 
of  adverbial,  99;  explanatory  or  restrictive,  239;  infinitive  and 
participial,  270 ;  construction  in  abridged,  286,  288 ;  order  of,  287. 

Plural,  56,  57,  58,  60,  129. 

Position  of  adjectives,  128;  of  modifiers,  127,  132;  of  adverbs,  141;  of 
relative  clause,  284 ;  of  phrases  and  clauses,  287. 

Possessive  adjective  pronouns,  207. 


800  INDEX. 

Possessive  case,  72,  74. 

Postscript,  10. 

Potential,  108,  160. 

Preamble,  221. 

Predicate  adjective,  16. 

Predicate,  simple,  13,  43;  modified,  13. 

Prepositions,  28,  33;  superfluous,  150. 

Principal  parts  of  verbs,  115,  116. 

Progressive  form  of  verbs,  169. 

Promissory  notes,  155. 

Pronouns:  definition,  11;  antecedents  of,  11;  interrogative,  89,  204; 
common  error  in  case  of,  93 ;  personal,  97 ;  person,  number,  and 
gender  of,  97;  compound  personal,  101;  declension  of  personal, 
103;  ambiguous  use  of  personal,  137;  relative,  196;  who,  which,, 
and  what,  ,198  ;  compound  relative,  201;  declension  of  relative,  205  ; 
declension  of  interrogative,  205;  adjective,  206 :, possessive  adjec- 
tive, 207;  possessive,  207;  agreement  with  antecedent,  210,  213; 
ambiguous  use  of  relative,  284. 

Punctuation:  important  rules,  4;  dash,  5,  133,  281;  quotations,  23; 
series,  33;  address,  45;  exercise,  48;  words  omitted,  53;  words  in 
pairs,  57;  nouns  in  apposition,  70;  parenthetical  expressions,  104r 
110,  267;  words  in  contrast,  106;  words  in  same  construction,  121; 
as,  etc.,  in  examples,  235;  adjective  phrase  and  clause,  239;  enu- 
meration of  particulars,  242,  251 ;  adverbial  elements,  247 ;  noun 
clauses,  254;  parentheses  and  brackets,  267;  the  semicolon  in  place 
of  period,  275 ;  review,  279 ;  colon  and  dash,  281 ;  independent 
elements,  293. 

Quotation,  definition  and  rules  for  punctuation,  23;  direct  and  in- 
direct, 131. 

Rambling  sentences,  39. 

Receipts,  134,  138. 

Redundant  verbs,  125. 

Regular  and  irregular  verbs,  115,  118. 

Relation  of  clauses,  266. 

Relative  pronouns,  197;  compound,  201,  205. 

Report  of  committee,  211,  218. 

Reproductions,  102,  107,  111,  128,  171. 

Resolutions,  221,  228,  232,  281. 


INDEX.  301 

Rhetoric  :  rambling  sentences,  39 ;  natural  order  of  words,  80,  84 ; 
introductory  words,  92;  style,  114;  exaggeration,  114;  comparison 
of  style,  118,  193,  237,  291;  ambiguity,  124;  position  of  noun 
modifiers,  127,  132;  direct  and  indirect  quotation,  131;  ambiguous 
use  of  personal  pronouns,  137;  position  of  adverbs,  141;  order  of 
emphasis,  153;  subject  emphatic,  158;  predicate  adjective  emphatic, 
161;  adjective  emphatic,  165;  adverbial  elements  emphatic,  176; 
brevity,  180,  184,  189;  clearness,  199;  particular  terms,  203;  the 
simile,  208,  212,  229;  figures  of  speech,  215;  the  metaphor,  220, 
225,  229,  244;  figurative  use  of  adjectives,  225;  faded  metaphors, 
225 ;  contrast,  233 ;  use  of  figurative  language,  241 ;  mixed  meta- 
phors, 244;  the  present  tense,  249;  climax,  251;  attractiveness, 

259,  262,  268,  272,  275;    simplicity,  280;    ambiguous  use  of  relative 
pronouns,  284;  ambiguity  with  participles,  289;  unity,  291. 

• 
Secretarial  writings,  etc. :  duties  of  secretary,  183;  records  of  secretary, 

187,  191;  constitution  and  by-laws,  194;  amendments,  200;  notices, 
appointments,  and  reference,  202  ;  notice  of  reference,  209 ;  reports 
of  committees,  211,  218;  preamble,  221,228;  resolutions,  221,  228, 
232,  281;  copy  of  record,  250;  treasurer's  report,  256;  credentials, 

260,  264;  petitions,  278,  281 ;  remonstrance  and  announcement,  282; 
notices  of  meeting,  245. 

Semicolon,  235,  242,  275. 

Sentence  :  definition,  1 ;  subject  of,  1,  13,  44;  kinds,  2;  predicate  of,  2, 

13;  declarative,  3;  interrogative,  3;  imperative,  3;  exclamatory,  3; 

order  of,  89;  simple,  complex,  and  compound,  230;  periodic,  loose, 

and  balanced,  246. 
Shall  and  will,  distinction  of,  172. 
Simile,  208,  212,  229. 
Simplicity,  280. 
Singular,  56,  129. 

Story  to  be  imitated,  113,  127,  136,  160,  245,  282. 
Style,  114;  comparison  of,  118,  193,  227,  237,  291. 
Subject,  simple,  13,  43 ;  modified,  13 ;  compound,  130. 
Subjunctive,  108,  160,  162. 
Subordinate  elements,  216. 
Such  and  so,  distinction  in  use  of,  224. 
Synonyms,  34,  46,  57,  79,  99,  116,  125,  147,  190,  213,  232,  249,  263,  271, 

278,  285. 


302  INDEX. 

Telegrams,  75,  82. 
Tense,  109,  160. 
That,  use  of,  198. 
Transitive  verbs,  47. 
Treasurer's  report,  256. 

Verbal  nouns,  52. 

Verbs:  definition,  12;  phrase,  13;  complements  of,  41,  45;  complete 
and  incomplete,  42,  45 ;  transitive  and  intransitive,  47 ;  voice  of, 
105,  109;  mode  of,  108,  162;  tense  of,  109;  person  of,  112;  number 
of,  112,  129,  213;  principal  parts  of,  115;  regular,  115;  irregular, 
118;  redundant  and  defective,  125;  infinitives  and  participles  of, 
135;  conjugation  of,  140,  146,  148,  152,  155,  157;  auxiliary,  140; 
emphatic  and  interrogative  forms  of,  165;  negative  forms  of,  167  ; 
progressive  and  passive  forms  of,  169 ;  review  of  conjugation  of, 
177,  179,  *81;  parsing  of,  187;  agreement  with  subject,  253;  omis- 
sion of  part  of,  265. 

Voice,  105. 

Who,  which,  and  what,  distinction  of,  198. 
Yes  and  no,  57. 


ADVERTISEMENTS. 


BOOK  i.  TARRFI  I  5C5 

40  cts.  Introd.  1  /A  Pi  D  C,  L-  L-   O 

LESSONS  IN  LANaUAGE. 

By  H.  S.  TARBELL, 

Superintendent  of  Schools,  Providence,  R.I. 


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J.  W.  Barnard,  Prof,  of  Language,  State  Normal  School,  Cape  Girardeau, 
Mo.  :  It  is  well  adapted  to  the  work  of  the  lower  grades.  It  is  systematic  and 
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and  style  it  is  very  attractive,  and  up  to  the  highest  standard  of  excellence  in 
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I  like  the  plan  of  the  work  much,  especially  the  practical  line  followed.  Imita- 
tion and  usage  are  the  grand  avenues  to  the  proper  acquisition  of  language,  and 
the  author  has  emphasized  that  fact. 


GINN  &  COMPANY,  Publishers, 

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